New Testament Theology: Matthew, Mark, and Luke by R.T. France

The Gospels are the first books in the New Testament, which recorded the deeds of Jesus. According to France, Matthew, Mark and Luke were reporters, who witnessed Jesus’ deeds, and they reported just what Jesus did and said. Their record became the basis of New Testament theology. However, many questions emerged as to why each reporter presented different writings. The three reporters were not ordinary traditional story-tellers; they had different understanding Jesus. Thus, this summary will critically assess the New Testament according to Matthew, Mark and Luke.

The four Gospel books offered a unique historical phenomenon. Although they covered about Jesus, they were written in different times, and illustrated independence of the writers. To some Christians, this report presented an embarrassment due to lack of harmonization of events, but true harmony could only be achieved by singing the same song in different tunes. Harmonization could affect the Gospel students if the authority could rise beyond the canonical texts, which is its foundation. Matthew’s interpretation, and that of other reporters, provides us with the true words and deeds of Jesus.

The organization of Matthew’s Gospel illustrates the five main ‘discourses’ which Jesus based his teachings. Matthew progressed to introduce Jesus as the Messiah by describing his ministry in Galilee, where he was supported and opposed. He also described the confrontation between Jesus and leaders of Israelites before concluding on his death and resurrection. Matthew’s report is almost the same as Mark’s narrations, as Mark mentioned Galilee as the location of hope and restoration, contrary to Mark’s Vie of Jerusalem as an opposition and death zone. Matthew’s theological standpoint can only be described as “fulfillment.”

Matthew’s theological perspective is divided into three areas. The first area is Christology, where he expressed fulfillment as the goal at which Christ achieved God’s purpose. In Matthew’s narrative, disciples referred to Jesus as “Lord.” Peter’s confession that Jesus is “the Christ” was Matthew’s idea. In Luke, Jesus hardly talked of divine Wisdom, but Matthew’s wording portrayed Jesus as the divine Wisdom on earth.

Mark’s report on Gospel covered the story of Jesus, as well as his disciples. His main theological perceptive was Christology, and particularly on following Jesus. Mark emphasized on suffering to fulfill God’s promise. The disciples understood Jesus’ teaching as superficial, and their personalities were unflattering. The dullness of disciples allowed Jesus to correct them through positive teaching. Mark emphasized on discipleship. Mark was an ardent story-teller compared to other Gospel writers.
Luke demonstrated the transfer of Jesus’ mission to the church. The book of Acts narrates the advancement of the Gospel beyond Jews towards the Gentiles. Luke was a Gentile, whose knowledge on Judaism was outstanding. The admission of Gentiles into God’s people was because of unbelieving Jews. Jerusalem was the place where the prophet has to die, but also where Jesus rose to meet his disciples. Luke was truly a theologian, but not of Paul’s nature. Gentiles and Jews illustrated God’s fulfillment of prophets of Israel.

The good news to the poor is that God has no partiality in fulfilling His purpose. Luke emphasized that the Gospel was meant for the poor, the loathed and the disadvantaged. In reference to Isaiah 61, Jesus’ visit to Nazareth demonstrated liberation to the poor as he fulfilled his purpose. In his first chapter, Luke mentioned that it was the despised shepherds, who visited Jesus when he was born. Jesus’ sermon, according to Luke, commenced with pronouncing blessings to the poor. The teaching on wealth and belongings ended up in denunciation of the rich.

Luke has referred to the Holy Spirit more than Matthew and Mark. Without the Holy Spirit, there would have been no mission for Luke’s perspective. The believers received the Holy Spirit once they were baptized. According to Luke, the Holy Spirit’s gift assisted the church to proclaim Jesus and proceed with its mission. The coming of the Holy Spirit fulfilled the eschatological hopes that were promised in the Old Testament. Luke’s work covered much of the New Testament’s theme through his view on salvation and Jesus’ mission in the world.

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Pakistanis/American Muslims

World View
Most of the Pakistani Americans practice the Islamic religion. Religion is a fundamental aspect in the life of these people. The Quran in addition to teachings from Muhammad are the main guidelines followed by Pakistanis/American Muslims in all aspects of their lives. They worship in mosques with other Muslims from all over the world. They often congregate in Mecca annually with Muslims from all over the world to offer sacrifices and thanksgiving to Allah. In the US specifically, these Muslims have played an integral part in educating Muslim Students of America (MSA) across various states.
The main articles of faith that these Muslims live by include; they believe in one superior God and him alone has the right to be worshiped. They turn to him for all their needs. The Quran is basically a solution o many of their philosophical dilemmas because they believe that the holy book was inspired by God. Apart from God and the Quran, these Muslims believe in the existence of angels.

They are honorary creatures and among them is Angel Gabriel who Muslims believe was sent by Muhammad to bring his people the Quran (Naseem, 2001, n.p). Just like other Christians living in America, Pakistani Americans also believe in the Day of Judgment. According to them, this day is similar to the day of resurrection when people will resurrect to face God’s judgment. This will be based on whether they followed the deeds, beliefs and values outlined by God’s Revealed Books. The books are supposed to act as guidance for God’s people sent by his messengers as proof for mankind.

Value orientations
However, Pakistanis/Americans believe that God has given his people freewill to chose what is right and wrong and they will be responsible for their choices during the Day of Judgment. It is evident that the Islamic religion among Pakistanis/Americans has a great significance as displayed by their value orientations. As mentioned earlier on, their teachings and the holy Quran also guide their value orientations. For instance, it is illegal to kill, gamble, drink, bear false witness and also to get angry. Although the American culture is primarily secular, Pakistanis/American Muslims prohibit the use of alcohol under the Islamic law. Blasphemy is also no allowed.

Although political issues dominate American headlines in America, Pakistanis/Americans appear very principled in nature. They draw good values from practices and religious symbols. Pakistanis/American Muslims should always respect oneself and others, constantly seek knowledge about their religion, seek forgiveness, observe SALAWAT, be grateful at all times and should be willing to kill or die for the sake of Allah.

A main challenge encountered in this assessment is the many patriarchal rules practiced by Pakistanis American Muslims. They are so devoted to their culture although some of their practices appear outdated. For instance, direct eye contact is prohibited in society. This phenomenon is considered rude and should be avoided at all costs especially by women. Direct contact through touch by non related people belonging to the opposite sex is also prohibited. A main setback to this community in America is the fact that they are often associated with militants and terrorism. This is especially after the September 11th incident. It is unfortunate that such a religious community propagates war and terror. Moreover, Sunnis and Shias living in Pakistan sometimes engage in fights with each other against the doctrines and teachings of the Quran. There are no doctrines that tell its people to engage in war or kill each other (Metcalf, 1996, p.10).
Cultural norm

Pakistanis/American Muslims have a variety of dress code, appearances and lifestyles. Although they have a distinct ethnic origin and identity in Pakistan, they have over time assimilated with the American people and culture. This may be attributed to language; English is widely spoken in Pakistan just like in the US. Pakistanis/Americans introduced the Pakistani cuisine to America and this is established as one of the most popular meals served in American restaurants. Although Islamic food varies from one religion to another a common phenomenon is the use of spices and curry. Their food is similar to North Indian food served in American restaurants. Their dietary staples are composed of vegetable curry, meat, rice and unleavened wheat bread. Apart from high curry content there is plenty of fat and salt unlike ordinary American dishes.

In terms of their dress code, they wear religious paraphernalia like “topi” a religious cap that should not be removed by the owner. The women counterparts dress in “hijab”, a veil for women a display of modesty, morality and privacy. Lastly, hand washing is essential both before and after eating. This is mainly done in the toilets and therefore, Pakistanis American Muslim patients are provided with bowls or jugs of water by the bedside for this purpose. In conclusion, there is continuing debate about Muslim immigrants to America. Pakistanis American Muslims are just one group. If we forget the negative publicity surrounding the Islamic community in the United States then we can be able to appreciate their worldview, value orientations and cultural norms.

Bibliography;
Ahmad, L. I. (February 2008). American Muslim Culture Confusion. Retrieved 15 July, 2012 from <http://abulaith.wordpress.com/2008/02/05/cultural-practices/>
Akgunduz, A. Norms and Values In Islam .Retrieved 15 July, 2012 from < http://islam.uga.edu/norms_values.html>
Metcalf, B. D. (1996). Making Muslim space in North America and Europe. Berkeley [u.a.: Univ. of California Press.
Naseem, H. (2001). Muslim philosophy science and mysticism. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons.

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Martyrdom in Islam and Christianity (comparisons)

Introduction
Death plays a crucial role in every culture and even voluntary death has a elevated purpose with a very particular meaning in the two religions of Christian and Islam. The two religions display similarities and differences, for all of them martyrdom is for all time the utmost grace which the believer can probably receive. It is also the only situation in which voluntary death is acknowledged (cicek 95).

Similarities
In the two religions of Islam and Christianity, martyrs play an exceptional task of being the most admired and respected believers. The martyrs are also considered the best examples of how the respective faiths should be lived (Martyrdom 3).

Differences
According to the Islam religion, a Muslim cannot tell the truth about their faith once their life is endangered and it is not taken as a disgraceful departure from the truth. Fearfulness in battle is taken as shameful while martyrdom is held up as the embodiment of faithfulness for a Muslim. In the contrary, a Christian martyr even when in danger of corporal punishment and death has to refuse to give up his or her faith. On several occasions, Christians were taken before authorities and were forced to make an act of worship but they refused because of their desire to worship only God in Christ and as a result they were frequently killed (martyrdom 3).

Conclusion
Today, there are so many Christians and Muslims who are ready to die for beliefs and the different views of martyrdom from Islam and Christianity perspective should enables us to realize that all religions do not teach the same basic things but they have to be evaluated cautiously on the merit of what they carry for us.

Works cited
Cicek, Huseyin.”Martyrdom in Judaism, Christianity and Islam.” Accessed15 Feb. 2012.
< http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/484Cicek.pdf>
“Martyrdom in Christianity and Islam.” Accessed 15 Feb. 2012. <http://www.spotlights.org/images/Martyrdom.pdf>

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Islam and Christianity

Introduction
Christianity and Islam are the main religions occupying the world today with thousands of people either following Christianity or Islam. Islam religion believes in existence of one God while in Christianity, the Godhead exist in three forms; God the father, the son and the Holy Spirit. The following discussion concentrates on similarities and difference between the two religions with aspect of prayer.

Similarities
Christians believe in the Lord’s Prayer while Muslims have the Sura AL-Feteha in the Quran. Both of the prayers are similar in meaning with only difference in language used. Prayer forms an integral part in both religion and it’s the main form of communication between man and God. In both religions, prayer may be conducted anytime but special times also exist to ensure man develops and adapts the habit to pray always. Both religions uses prayers aids like “tasbeeh” in Islam and “rosary” in Christianity with both resemble a string of beads (Christine 2).

Differences
Muslim prayers differ fundamentally from Christian prayers virtually in everything, in style, form, content and intention. Prayer in Islam is of great significance and its importance can hardly be overemphasized in any form. Unlike Christianity, mention of prayer in Islam symbolizes a mandatory ritual that should be conducted five times in a day by every Muslim adult facing Mecca. However in Christianity prayer is voluntarily with no obligation while it does not form any mandatory ritual and there is no specific direction one should face while praying. If a Christian misses prayer in a day, a week or even a month, they are not obligated in compensation unlike in Islam where if one omits a single prayer, he should pray at a later point of time. Before prayers in Islam, one should purify himself with either water or sand but such rituals are not present in Christian prayers (Christine 2).

Conclusion
Although there are some differences in style, content and form, prayer in both religions is a fundamental component in ones spiritual life. It’s used to edify believers’ spiritual beings. However sharp differences do occur as demonstrated above from style, purpose and content.

Work Cited
Christine Schirrmacher, Christian and Muslim Prayer, Retrieved on February 15th, 2012 from: http://www.worldevangelicals.org/resources/pdf/Christian_and_Muslim_Prayer.pdf

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Religion in Colonial America

Initially, America was dominated by the Native American religions before the advent of the colonialism. The religions were more heterogeneous, and hence encompassed the diversity. The religion proliferation took place after the settlement of the European. This was possible to the rising number of the immigrants who had strong religious convictions. Most of the religious revival took place on the 18th century. The immigrants from Europe brought along the principles of their traditional churches such as the protestant, catholic, and the Anglicans. In their new found home, the immigrants became more religious. This was a source of the religious tension and suspicion. This paper seeks to focus on religious toleration.

There were various efforts put into place by the colonial Americans to create toleration for different religious practices. Firstly, there was the recognition of religion as a diverse entity. The formation of the colonies was based on religious beliefs. This was to ensure that religious persecution was minimized in the colonies. As the persecution became outdated, there was religious proliferation in the different colonies. Consequently, religious diversity became an overriding thing in the colonies. This led to people migrating from all over the world to come and enjoy religious freedom religious freedom that was in America. Secondly, there was a need to separate church and state for the realization of the religious toleration. This dream was captured in the first amendment that resulted in the complete separation of the church from the state.

Moreover, there was religious toleration by the settlers. The settlers were more tolerant of the differences in customs and outlook, and hence made it easy to generalize about the region difficult (McLaren and Coward 97). Settlers in America brought with them different religious practices that made it difficult to enforce a single religious system on any large area (“Society and Culture in Provincial America” 83). On the other hand, the Great Britain encouraged diversity. This was by ensuring that the Dutch in New York and New Jersey retained their language, religion, and customs (McLaren and Coward 97). All these characteristics were kept in balance by an even-tempered tolerance. Additionally, there were various laws that were passed to ensure that there was religious toleration. This was enshrined in the bill of rights.

The other effort was through the awakening of the American society. At this time, religion became more of a person thing rather than the whole society (McLaren and Coward 46). The influential leaders such as George Whitefield also introduced Christianity to the slaves and played a significant role in the revival (“Society and Culture In Provincial America” 84). The awakening changed the American colonist rituals, and their self-awareness.

There were various motivating factors in encouraging the religious tolerance. Firstly, the religious tolerance served as a major motivation for the Europeans to venture to the American colonies. They also felt that the religious tolerance was essential in the American Revolution that ended slavery and colonialism. Moreover, religious tolerance was also essential to agricultural expansion by the settlers. Through the religious diversity, it was possible to perpetuate various policies (McLaren and Coward 159).
There were various challenges faced by the colonial Americans in ensuring there was religious tolerance. Firstly, there was constant repealing of laws passed to ensure there was the religious tolerance. Secondly, there was continuous battle between the various Protestants sects. Moreover, there was unwavering suspicion between the catholic and the Protestants. Catholic was viewed as an agent of the Rome (“Society and Culture in Provincial America” 83). In addition, there was constant persecution by the Puritan to those who depicted a contrary religious view.
In conclusion, religion was an important aspect in the colonization of America. Indeed, it was a dominant part of the lives of the colonists. Consequently, the American society continues to be dominated by the religious tolerance.

Works Cited
“Society and Culture in Provincial America.” Mcgraw-hill.com. Web 5 February 2013. <http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073513237/429696/bri13237_ch03.pdf>
McLaren, John and Coward, Harold. “Religious Conscience, the State, and the Law.” New York: SUNY Press, 1999. Print

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Presentation on Islam

Introduction
Islam is a monotheistic religion whose adherents believe in the existence of one deity Allah, and a prophet, Muhammad, through the teachings of a holy book referred to as the Quran. According to the Islamic religion, there is only one deity, Allah, that is incomparable to any other being, and Muslims exist to serve Allah (Gaffney, 2013).

The two main festivals in Islam that will be discussed in this paper are Eid UL-Fitr and Eid-UL-Aldha.
Eid-Ul-Fitr
Eid UL-Fitr festival is conducted at the end of a thirty days fasting period; it is usually a huge and a worldwide celebration referred to as Ramadhan. During the fasting period, Muslims give to the poor and stay away from actions that are considered by the religion as sinful. During the Ramadhan celebration, Muslims dress smartly preferably in their Sunday best, cook certain celebration meals and go to the mosque for prayers and celebration. Muslims share meals, presents and take a holiday to meet up with their families and friends for a get together (Abu, 2013). During Eid-UL-Fitr, Muslims are required to show unity universally and the day of the celebration is specified by religious leaders after the new moon is observed. The ceremony is celebrated in all Arab and Islamic countries and in most cases cases, Saudi Arabia specifies the day on which the festival should be carried out.

Eid al-Fitr meal
Eid-UL-Adha
Eid-UL-Adha (“festival of sacrifice”), is celebrated once a year to remember Abrahams prove of obedience to god when he agreed to sacrifice his only son as a sign of obedience and selflessness. The Quran states that Allah appeared to in a dream and requested him to sacrifice his only son as a sign of devotion. Abraham obeyed and ignored the devil who lured him to disobey God through refusing to give up his only treasure Ishamel and when he was about to offer his sacrifice, Allah stopped him and provided him with a lamb for the sacrifice (Abu, 2013). According to the Quran, Abraham was one of gods prophets whose revelations and actions are tenets upon which Islam faith is founded. During this festival, Muslims go to the mosque for prayers and sacrifice a sheep whose a third of the meat is given out to others in remembrance of Abrahams sacrifice. The festival is aimed at showing how Muslims should be strong and continue believing in Allah even during the harshest trials, and learn to trust that he is always in control.
“Eid-UL-Adha start at the same time with Hajj celebration in Mecca”.

Meditation
Meditation in Islam (Salat) is used as a method of relaxation and recovering from stress, that can be done either by an individual or a couple. Salat is also used as a form of affirmation through which Muslims are reminded of Allah’s love and peace and that each individual is pure naturally. To meditate, one should sit in a quiet and comfortable position, relax and let a loved one recite the following words as you close your eyes. “Let every cell in your body know and feel that you are loved. Allah loves you. Many people love you. Love is all around you like warm light, comforting you, taking away all your pain” (Wael, 2013).

In the process of relaxation, let out all your fears, the spoken, heard and seen and imagine that the weary past is gone. Imagine these words quietly, “let go of your fear and worry. You are following Allah’s guidance and that is peaceful. You are in harmony with the entire universe and that is peaceful.” (Wael, 2013) The meditation process aims at assuring believers that Allah is with them and make them be at peace with both their inner selves and have confidence to face the future.

Marriage rites
Marriage in Islam is a holy union which shows obedience to Allah and its purposes are companionship and procreation. It also helps in reducing tension, provides sexual gratification and through uniting families and a choice to live a holy life. The marriage ceremony is referred to as nikah, and the man and wife are required to declare their willingness to be committed to one another in this holy contract that is also considered as a form of worship. The ceremony entails al-ijab wal-qubul in which a woman is offered for marriage by the Wali (guardian) and the groom accepts.

The groom and the bride are expected to announce their devotion to each either in the presence of their families and families, in accordance to the Muslim Shariah and call Allah as a witness. After the performance of the ritual, the Quran requires the couple to “declare their marriage, have it in the mosque and beat the drum”s and therefore this makes it a social activity. The marriage ceremony has several rituals that include engagement that is done after the couples give consent to marry and Medhi as part of the bride’s preparation for the ceremony whereby she applies henna on her hands and feet.
A wedding ceremony held inside a mosque
Funeral rites
After death, Muslims believe that one is questioned and judged according to his deeds while he or she was alive. Once an individual is dead, he or she cannot commit any good or bad in the grave and their afterlife is based on their actions while they were alive. Death is a rite of passage from the living in the spirit world where one is rewarded according to their actions, that is one either goes to heaven or hell.

The people around the deceased should be calm, and ensure that they close his or her eyes. Mourners are forbidden from excessive wailing and grief because death is the will of Allah, the giver and taker of life at his own time. Burial should be carried out immediately to avoid the process of embalming and unnecessary disturbance of the body (Huda, 2013). The funeral rites involve washing the body and covering it in a white cloth, preferably immediately after death. Family and friends go to offer funeral prayers, which are similar to the daily prayers offered five times a day. After prayers, the body is taken to the cemetery for burial whereby only men are allowed to go to the graveside.

A Muslim funeral procession
Islam originated from the middle east in the 7th century and it is founded on the prophet Muhammad’s teachings, which express the need for believers to be submissive and obedient to Allah. The Quran states that Allah is the creator of the universe and believers should acknowledge that there is no other God but Allah (Gaffney, 2013). The Quran contains the religions sacred text and is essential in the process of conveying the prophets teachings as revealed to him by Allah. The characteristic rituals that are used to identify Muslim believers include faith, prayers, zakat, fasting and a visit to Mecca (Hajj). Currently, the religion more than 1,500,000,000 followers around the globe and because of their staunch belief in their faith they rarely convert to other religions contrary to the trend observed among Christians who convert to Islam.

References
Abu, M., (2013). What is Eid al-Adha?, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/10382365/What-is-Eid-al-Adha.html, retrieved on 16th December 2013
Gaffney, Patrick, (2013). “Khutba.” Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. p. 394
Huda, H., (2013). Islamic Funeral Rites. Care for the dying, funeral prayers, burial, and mourning. http://islam.about.com/cs/elderly/a/funerals.htm,.
Wael A, 2013, Islamic Meditation, http://islamicsunrays.com/islamic-meditation-for-relaxation-and-spiritual-comfort/, retrieved on 16th December, 2013.

Presentation on Islam 2

Running Head: Presentation on Islam 1

Role of Religion in Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Rome

Human beings have always looked upon the supreme beings for supernatural interventions on various issues. As a result, religion was an integral aspect in the lives of the ancient civilizations. In the ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome, religion was held in high regards and various gods were worshiped in each of society. In the ancient Egypt, religion was an integral aspect at all levels. Prosperity, childbirth, healing, death, and the rise and fall of river Nile were seen as the works of gods. Each city had its own gods and the gods were invoked for various divine assistance. For instance, the Osiris was a chief god of after life and death and was revered for life-giving ability. In addition, Neith was a goddess of hunting and warfare whereas Isi was a goddess of protection (Hart 59).

In ancient Rome, religion was at the heart of day-to-day life, just like in the ancient Egypt. The Romans believed that various gods played specific roles in their lives, and thus, they revered them highly. The Roman gods had various ranks and the topmost rank was Jupiter, the king of all gods and his wife Juno. Other gods included the goddess of hunting called Diana, the goddess of love called Venus, the goddess of wisdom and healing called Minerva, and the god of the sea called Neptune. Each god or goddess was worshipped on a particular public holiday and the emperor was considered as a god. Temples were building for these gods following a special pattern and each family had a special alter for worshiping these gods (Rüpke 23).

The ancient Greeks also had a number of gods in human forms, but were considered to have immense beauty and abilities. The main role of the gods was to advance art and wisdom. The gods were depicted inform of beautiful arts, and thus, the development of art meant a depiction of a more beautiful god. The Greek gods had various names that depicted human conditions. Some of the names include Artemis, Hermes, Apollo, and Athena among many. Gods were patrons of various cities. For instance, Aphrodite was the patron of Corinth and was called upon by the Corinthians to help in time of war and calamities (Mikalson 61).

From the analysis of the roles of ancient religion, it can be seen that some cultural aspect differed in each culture whereas other cultural aspects were the same. All the ancient civilizations had a number of gods and each god was invoked for specific occasions. The Romans religious practices were more practical than the Greeks’ religion. In Rome, each god was given a special function to perform, and thus, there was a division of labor among the gods. For instance, some divinities presided over the birth of infants whereas others presided over baking function among other functions. In contrast, the Greek accepted various gods for a number of functions. The Egyptians were also practical in their worship and they evoked the name of each god for a specific function.

Works Cited
Hart, George. Egyptian Myths, Legendary Past. New York: University of Texas Press, 1997.
Mikalson, Jon. Athenian Popular Religion. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983.
Rüpke, Jörg. A Companion to Roman Religion. New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.

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Fasting and Prayer Practices as they relate to the Structures Islam and Christianity

Introduction
Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are three intimately related religions that have existed in the world for a long time. This is attributed to the fact that they revere Abraham as well as other patriarchs mentioned by the Torah (Hebrew Scriptures), Quran, as well as Old and New Testaments (Christian Scriptures) as their ancestors in spiritual terms. Actually, the three religions have been referred in many instances to as Abrahamic religions. In the last 2000 years, Islam and Christianity have emerged as the world’s major religions. Both religions share much general ground in such aspects as their trace of ancestry to Abraham; believe in prophecy, revelation, God’s messengers (apostles), resurrection of the dead, scripture, as well as religious community’s centrality (Hyde & Hyde 48).

The two religions vary greatly in history, practice, and belief but they also have a number of similarities. Before looking at the similarities and differences in their fasting and prayer practices, it is imperative to examine the history and practices of the two religions to give a starting point for an effective analysis.
History of the Religions:
Christianity is traced back to the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem in 1CE. When he reached thirty years of age, Jesus began preaching God’s word but he was crufied in 33CE in Jerusalem. Christians hold that Jesus was resurrected after three days and ultimately ascended into heaven. On the other hand, Islam faith holds that God gave Prophet Muhammad his first revelation at a Hira cave in 610CE. The first Islamic calendar year starts in 622CE, a time at which Prophet Muhammad and followers shifted and settled in Medina.

Beliefs and Practices:
Islamic faith is based on the belief of existence of no god but Allah with Mohammad being his prophet. They believe in Koran as a direct God’s word transcription and their religion means total submission towards God’s will. Islamic faith have five pillars, which create its core practices. These are Shahadah- recitation of their basic belief, Salah- ritual prayer, which muslims must recited 5 times daily, Sawm- fasting during Ramadhan month, Zakat- giving charity towards the poor, and Hajj- pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime. On the other hand, Christianity holds that God sent Jesus, his only son, to save the world from sin and those with faith in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit will inherit eternal life.

Christianity asks followers to attend service on specified days such as every Saturday or Sunday. In addition, Christianity encourages confession of sins as well as partaking in communion. Good works and alms giving can be included in penance for sins.
Christianity and Islam have several differences and similarities between them. Such factors could be evidenced in their beliefs and practices as each religion holds some beliefs, which may or may not be similar with the other. For instance, their places of worship vary with Christians worshipping in Churches while Muslims worship in Mosques. The purpose of this paper is examining the differences and similarities in the fasting and prayer practices between the two religions.

Fasting and Prayer Practices
Prayer and fasting is the voluntary acts of individuals to go without food for them to focus on effective prayers as well as fellowship with God. They (prayer and fasting) usually go together but this is not the case at all times, as people can fast without prayer or pray without fasting. However, both Christians and Muslims believe that these two activities (prayer and fasting) should be combined as well as be dedicated to the glory of God for them to reach maximum effectiveness (Hyde & Hyde 48).

Prayer:
Prayer is an act or invocation, which seeks activation of a rapport towards an object of worship or deity via premeditated communication. Prayer can assume the form of a religious practice, individually or communally as well as take place in private or public settings. Prayer may involve use of songs or words. When language is utilized, prayer may assume the forms of incantation, hymn, spontaneous utterance, or a formal creed in a praying individual. There are various kinds of prayer like petitionary prayers, thanksgiving, prayers of supplication, and praise or worship. Both Christians and Muslims direct their prayers towards God and Allah respectively and they pray for various reasons like personal benefits or even for others’ sake (Valkenberg 148).

In both Christianity and Islamic faiths, prayer and fasting are highly regarded as effective mechanisms of fellowshipping with God. Just like among the Muslims, the traditional Christianity prayers appear at set times as well as in the voluntary events of individuals. Canonical hours, just like the Islam prayer times, originated from the Near Eastern and Biblical tradition and Orthodox and Catholics followers understand this. This tradition has also remained among the Anglicans as well but the other Protestants divide the issue of prayer into private and public and lack daily set prayer times for their collective or individual prayers. Some Christians may argue that the Islamic prayer within prostration is just a mere form but this criticism lacks spontaneity hence indicating lack of spirituality. Thus, it is hard to disqualify timing of prayers between the two religions though it is weak among the Christians (Valkenberg 149).

Actually, those criticizing Islam for performing prayers at some specific times should consider the Protestant prayer, which is also done at specific period in public worship, including the traditional forms. This argument shows that presence or lack of spontaneity may be a variation between the two religions. However, timing of prayer at specific times of the day or week is a similarity shared by the two groups. In essence, in case Islamic prayer can be condemned for lack of spontaneity, then the public prayers of Protestants should be condemned by this same argument. According to Aydin (19), the forms and times of public prayers by Protestants have only a weak Biblical justification since there is no Sunday prayer, kneeling gesture, or even folding of hands during prayer references in the Bible. Contrary, both gestures and times of Islamic prayer have abundant prove within Christian Scriptures.

For voluntary Christian prayers, Orthodox and Catholics have the ability of relating to the set supplications among the Muslims. Some Protestants rebuff composed prayers in public prayer, with the requirement that whoever prays invents prayer phrases at the praying moment, therefore preserving spontaneity and thus the prayers’ spirituality. Both religions have prayer traditions, which afford the possibility for the personal, spontaneous appearance of the believers’ personal needs, petitions, desires, confessions, as well as words of praise. The formal structure of the Islamic prayer does not exclude the personal expression choices. Islamic faith has several set prayers, which makes it easy for them to find in Islamic supplications prayers’ repertoire, which fits an individual’s specific situation and condition (Medearis 107).

The religions may vary due to formalization of prayers but formalization is unnecessarily a negative aspect but can form structure for acts of obedience among the followers. For instance, Muslims have clearly stipulated prayer times and practices and may be criticized by some Christians but a systematic public Protestant prayers’ observance show that, irrespective of the spontaneous demand, they are invariably a collection of a traditional formula set, which is common to a congregation, an individual, or even a denominational tradition. In most cases, leaders of prayers in both religions employ a traditional voice intonation that may lack verbal description but is considered essential (Valkenberg 149).

The prayers of Christians are quite diverse as they could be read from a text such as the Book of Common Prayer for the Anglicans or spontaneously like among the Pentecostal Christians. The Lord’s Prayer is the most common Christianity prayer, which the gospel accounts like Matthew 6: 9-13, show how Jesus Christ taught his twelve disciples to pray (Geldart 108). The prayer is an effective model for adoration, petition, as well as confession prayers among the Christians. In general, Christians pray to God (the Father) but some Christians such as Orthodox and Catholics will ask the righteous beings in heaven like saints and Virgin Mary to intercede through praying for them. “Amen” is the most regularly used closure in Christian prayers.

Muslims, on the other hand, pray a rather ritualistic prayer known as Salah or Salat facing Kaaba in Mecca 5 times daily. Quran has several chapters emphasizing their need and command of praying. Prophet Muhammed showed all Muslims the true means of offering prayers and thus same means of praying is observed by Muslim faithful to date. Muslims have adhan or azaan (call for prayer), where Muezzin calls all followers to stand for prayer together. The prayer entails standing and mentioning God is great (Allah o- aqbar) followed by first Quran’s chapter recitation. After bending and praising of god by the individual, one is then required to prostrate and praise god again. “Peace and blessings upon you marks the end of a Muslim prayer. A Muslim is forbidden from talking or doing anything else other than praying during the prayer. After completion of the prayer, an individual is allowed to offer his/her voluntary prayers or even supplicate Allah for his/her requirements. Muslims also have several standard supplications or duas provided in Arabic for recitation at different times such as for one’s parents, before eating, or after salah. The Muslims may also recite dua (or supplication) in their own languages or words for issues they wish communicating with God about with the hope that Allah will listen to and answer their prayers (Emerick 127-128).

Fasting:
As mentioned earlier, fasting is the act of abstaining from some food or drink or both willingly over a given time. A fast could be an absolute fast, which normally entails abstinence from all types of food and drinks over a defined period, usually 24 hours or for a number of days. Fasting may also assume the abstinence of some meals and limiting oneself to one or two meals per day as is usually the practice among the Muslim faithful during their holy month of Ramadan. Some people, particularly Christians may result into wet fasting (or juice fasting), which entails abstaining from all foods but allow derivation of nutritional intake via freshly juiced fruits and vegetables to enable their body to detoxify effectively. Some other forms of fasting may be partially restrictive, limiting specific substance or foods. Fast may have an intermittent nature also with some fasting practices precluding sexual intercourse as well as other activities and food (Valkenberg 148).

Fasting is another common practice to both Christianity and Islam. Among the Christians, the Orthodox, Catholics, and even the Anglicans better appreciate it more than by nonconformist traditions. Fasting has also been integrated as an aspect of worship among the Pentecostals. Among the Muslims, fasting is done at some set times whereas the Christians do it as personal vows only. To Muslims, Ramadan, which is the 9th month of the Islamic calendar as well as self-devotion month to Allah, is their fasting month. During this month, Muslims believe that they must indulge in praying to Allah as well as concentrating not as much on their day-to-day work schedules. This month entails visiting of mosque and praying; praying involves recitation of the Ramadan dua over the Ramadan period. Eating is limited to two meals per day over this period. One meal is suhoor (eaten before the sunrise) and Iftar (eaten after the sunset) but a dua must be recited prior to having such meals (Medearis 107).

Some of the non-conformist churches have clearly set times for fasting like a particular day within a week or month, though this is an aspect of order as opposed to rule like among the Muslims in the month of Ramadan . Among the Christians, fasting and prayer must go together and are particularly suitable for petition, or specific things or issues’ prayers like healing, peace, deliverance, or even breakthrough in some circumstances, situations, or conditions (Geldart 108). However, Muslims have their holy month of Ramadan, in which they fast without necessarily praying per se.

Although set fasting among the Christians, most notably during Lenten season and formerly Fridays and Wednesdays, generally merely restricts the types of foods that may be eaten at such times, Christians regularly have the custom of accusing their Muslim counterparts of hypocrisy during their Ramadan fasting since their fasting applies only to the day but not to the night. This paper does not support any religion but is examining the similarities and differences in prayer and fasting but it is worth noting that it is a human existence fact that a total Islamic fast cannot be done for 30 consecutive days due to well-being and preservation of life (Emerick 128).

Conclusion
In conclusion, both Christianity and Islam are Abrahamic religions as they trace their origin to the same ancestors. The paper has shown that Christianity is older than Islam having started in 1CE while Islam came up in 622CE. Both religions share some scriptures as Islamic Quran features most of the Christian’s Old Testament stories. This is a major similarity between the religions but their diverse interpretations of the Scriptures led to the separation of the followers. It may be possible that Islam came up as a religion to practice what the Old Testament presented as Islamic faith draws so much of its teachings from prophecies. This is why the prayer and fasting practices between the followers of the two religions vary as each religion holds to be right in interpretation and practices of prayers and fasting.

Works Cited
Aydin, Mahmut. Modern Western Christian Theological Understandings of Muslims Since the Second Vatican Council. Washington, D.C: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2002. Print.
Emerick, Yahiya. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Islam. Indianapolis IN: Alpha Books, 2002. Print.
Geldart, Anne. Examining Religions: Christianity Foundation. London: Heinemann Publications, 1999. Print.
Hyde, Margaret O, and Emily G. Hyde. Spirituality 101: An Overview for Teens. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books, 2009. Print.
Medearis, Carl. Muslims, Christians, and Jesus: Gaining Understanding and Building Relationships. Minneapolis, Minn: Bethany House, 2008.
Valkenberg, Pim. Sharing Lights on the Way to God: Muslim-Christian Dialogue and Theology in the Context of Abrahamic Partnership. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. Print.

Insert Surname Here 9

Issues Pertaining Religion and Sexuality

Introduction
Indian and Mexican cultures are multi-religious in nature. Mexico for instance, is a secular state, which has no official religion. However, the Roman Catholic has majority of members and this makes holidays such as Christmas and Easter are recognized as national holidays. The Roman Catholic and other religions within Mexico have played an instrumental part in defining the way of life of the Mexicans. In India, religions and cultures are diverse and they influence the way people in this state live. In both states, religion has been dominant in influencing societal way of behavior and phenomena such as marriage, the choice of a marriage partner and numerous aspects of sexuality across the existing genders.

The main objective of this paper is to look at various religions in India and Mexico and their influence on sexuality and different aspects of marriage. The focus will be on the values that define these religions and the role they play in in shaping sexual notions. The feminist arguments on women and the sexual attitudes used to define the role and limits of a woman in the two societies will be a subject of concern to this paper.

How religion and sexuality are different in Mexican and Indian cultures
Difference between religion in India and Mexico
India has a characteristic of more ethnic and religious groups than most countries in the world. Despite this multiplicity of religions, there exists a broad group of interrelated traditions called Hinduism. Although other religions within the nation such as Islam, Buddhism and Christianity have occasionally challenged its dominance, Hinduism is the most prevalent religion in the South Asian region. Some of the outstanding differences between Hinduism and other denominations are that it does not have a founding father (O’Brien 62).

Furthermore, Hinduism does not have a single reference book such as the Bible and the Qur’an but relies on teachings from various sources that have been gathered overtime. In India, numerous contending religious groups have attempted the definition of the universe, God, the society and the purpose of man on earth. However, Hindu teachings have been found to be more compelling and more authoritative than others are. This is attributable to the fact that Hindu texts and teachings that have been gathered throughout history provide an all-encompassing vision that covers of the important aspects of the society. Despite the presence of such a vision, Hinduism has encountered criticism from both within and outside the religious group (O’Brien 63).

Mexico is a secular state characterized by numerous religious denominations. However, in recent decades the country has experienced a transformation in its religious panorama. The results of numerous census data acquired in the years between 1885 and 2000 indicate a clear predominance of the Catholic Church in the national platform. The national census of 2000 for instance revealed that about 96% of the Mexican population professed the catholic religion. The Catholic Church like all other humanitarian organizations in Mexico is not monolithic. The group encompasses a broad convergence of a wide spectrum of ideological powers and factions with divergent interests. The virgin of Guadalupe, who is considered as the mother of Christ, is a powerful and popular religious image in Mexico. She is perceived as the symbol of parenthood, peace, confidence, power and fortitude. As a result, majority of those who profess the catholic faith direct their prayers to the virgin (Nesvig 14-15).

A majority of Mexicans believe that religion is a private affair that revolves around commitment to marriage, fertility, sanctity of mothers, condemnation of fornication, abortion, contraception and homosexuality. Those who fail to abide by the teachings of the religion acquire feelings of guilt and shame. Mexicans in diaspora, such as the United States, converge in barrio to access strong support systems especially the undocumented immigrants. This church provides crises counselling, platforms for activists and community celebrations.

In addition, the priest has the utmost respect since he officiates life cycle celebrations such as weddings, communion, baptism and the quinceanera, which is a celebration that initiates fifteen-year-old girls into adulthood. Despite its dominance, there are increasing numbers of parishioners leaving the catholic religion to join other religions such as Jehovah’s Witnesses, Pentecostalism and other protestant religions. Generally, Mexicans across all religions believe that death and other illnesses are consequences of God’s will and at times some Mexicans incorporate the rite of anointing the sick if the prognosis of a loved one is grave. Furthermore, in cases of sickness, some Mexicans use traditional healing methods as opposed to biomedical treatment (Nesvig 16-17).

Sexuality in India and Mexico
Virginity
Religion plays a central role concerning teachings on virginity in Mexican culture. The teachings of the Catholic Church, being the most dominant religion in the country, advocate for the preservation of one’s virginity until marriage. This form of control is centered on the moral standards of women in the Mexican community. Being a patriarchal society, the meaning of virginity is derived from the notion of sexual purity. This means that it is a concept that denotes a life enhancing resource.

Virginity in this community takes a social exchange value that all women, being the inferior members, use to enhance and maximize the available life opportunities. Furthermore, premarital abstinence is related to socially articulated family and gender dynamics. It is interwoven with a complex ethic of respect to the family thereby deriving a link between a family’s honor and the daughter’s virginity (Lopez 37-38).

In India, the dominance of the male gender and the teaching of the existing religions such as Hinduism, Christianity and Islam fall under some of the reasons upholding virginity among unmarried women. Marriage among Indians is used as a source of gain in terms of dowry and other benefits to the girl’s family. The caste system in India defined the socio-economic groups in which families belonged. For a family to move from a lower caste to another they sometimes used their daughters as tools of upward socioeconomic mobility and gained higher positions and favors from an socially recognized family. To achieve this objective, the parents organized marriages (Smith 310).

The cult of virginity, as an aspect of sexuality, relates to religions in India and Mexico in a variety of ways in terms of modelling morality. The teachings of the Catholic Church in Mexico and religions in India describe virginity as a norm. This means that in these societies, virginity was an expectation to which every girl in the society had to abide by to promote peaceful coexistence among the male and female genders in the communities (Lopez 39-40). Both societies being patriarchal, their religious teachings had to abide by the already set norms that stress on the purity of women before marriage. This view of male-dominated society lowers the moral status of women who fail to maintain their virginity before marriage. The teachings therefore appear relatively coercive and discriminatory as a form of social control since it describes sexually inactive women as pure while those who are sexuality active appear as impure (Smith 311).

The striking difference between the teachings on virginity in Mexican and Indian cultures is largely drawn from the source of inspiration. In Mexico, the virgin of Guadalupe forms the basis of religious teachings. Girls are fortified to follow the model of the virgin in their daily life activities. When they adhere to this way of life, they respect their bodies as the temple of the Lord and respect the sanctity of marriage, which demands purity of the bride. In the Indian culture, several aspects stress on the relevance of virginity. The caste system signifies a vital sector in the Indian society. A family dominated by girls who failed to uphold their virginity is considered of a lower social class compared to a family characterized by virgin daughters. In addition, religious teachings such as those of Christianity and Islam discourage premarital sex (Smith 311).

Homosexuality and lesbianism
The relationship between Indians and the homosexual community is traceable to 1995 when the New York based Federation of Indians Association (FIA) denied the South Asian Lesbian and Gay Association) SALGA the right to participate in the annual New York City Indian parade. This activist group was banned from participating in an event that celebrates the independence of India in 1947. The reasons given by FIA included the claim that SALGA’s actions were in violation of the nationalistic principles of India. As a self-styled arbiter of communal and national belonging, FIA could not envision Indian immigrants in New York marching as gays and lesbians.

The denial of homosexuality in India was further demonstrated by in 1996 by riots in Bombay and New Delhi which were instigated by the film Fire (Gopinath 149). All forms of Homosexuality are in contradiction with the Hindu teachings as was demonstrated in 1998 when activist groups in India led by the Shiva Sena stormed theaters that were showing Fire they claimed that homosexuality was not only an affront to Hinduism but also alien to Indian culture. Prior to the demonstration by the Shiva Sena, a Hindu right-wing body that constitutes the combative extension of the Hindu administration, and most media houses in India criticized Fire claiming that it had weak links to the true Indian culture. This is to say that both the media houses and extremist activist groups in India used the claim of inauthenticity, especially the notion that the film was not truly Indian, to critic both its queer content and diasporic origin (Gopinath 150-151).

Mexican traditional culture on sexuality has always been portrayed as subject to the heavy influence of Catholicism and by values inherent in machismo. These values concentrated on the strong separation between masculinity and femininity and the different levels of power enjoyed by the males and females. In traditional Mexico, men were considered to possess higher latitude in their ability to enact their sexual desires. Consequently, women had limited option in terms of fulfilling their sexual desires since they could either maintain an identity of women who are chaste, long suffering and self-sacrificing, or to enter the world of women without norms and values by engaging in freer sexuality contrary to the norms that defined the realm of heterosexual marriages.

The separation of roles between man and women in the Mexican society was important in determining who was stigmatized for engaging in homosexual activities (Carrillo 60). Furthermore, men in the traditional Mexico were described as being separated into three groups, which included men who were dominant in any sexual relationship. These men were masculine and had the capability of maintaining non stigmatized sexual personality as regular men. The other group of men was that which assumed the feminine role. This group underwent infiltration and defamation for their effeminate character. The third set encompassed of the minority. This group embraced both feminine and masculine role. They constituted an anomaly that was in contradiction of societal expectations (Carrillo 61).

The Mexican view of sexuality in relation to homosexuality has been on the verge of transformation over time. More specifically the contemporary perception of male homosexuality is shaped by Mexican cultural landscape. Hybridity in the construction of sexual identities has accelerated the internal changes, which results from speedy and irregular modernization including the divergent effects of exposure to external ideas and media especially from the United States. As a large and diverse county, which depicts a sharp contrast between its modern cities and the quiet rural villages, Mexico possesses a complex mix of cultures, which includes Spanish, American and other indigenous cultures. They portray differences characterized by the Napoleonic legal traditions that consider private consensual sexual activity to be beyond the scope of the law and the Roman Catholic Church teachings that homosexuality is sin.

Mexico also celebrates cultural ideals that uphold masculinity (machismo). It also has subcultures that portray a great deal of tolerance to sexual identities. This county draws pride from its history and tradition. However, with the current modernization, Mexico is undergoing rapid changes as it integrates itself with globalization and the transition from a one party state to a democracy (Carrillo 62-63).

The intricacy within the Mexican society has its reflection in the inconsistent conditions that homosexuals face in the country. Politically, Mexico expunged discriminatory laws based on sexual preference from its federal codes. This brought with it the passing of an ordinance that explicitly prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in Mexico City. Despite these laws in Mexico City, the social environment in many parts of the country remains hostile due to the Machsita ideals of manly appearance and behavior contribute to extreme prejudice against effeminate men. Furthermore, the Catholic Church teachings against homosexuality majorly contribute to the increasing levels of intolerance against gays and lesbians (Carrillo 131).

The outstanding difference between India and Mexico lies on the role of the government and activist groups in promoting or eliminating tolerance towards homosexuality. The production of films such as Fire and have been the woks of activists groups to pressurize the government the Indian community into accepting gays and lesbians as part of the larger Indian community. However, demonstrations and riots by pro-Hindu activist groups and members of the public reveal the negative attitude towards homosexuality in the country. Being a country dominated by different religions but largely Hindu, Indians through the government have continuously denied legislations promoting homosexuality and instead the government has put in place stringent laws to prevent any moves towards legalization of an act whose name cannot be found in the Hindu culture.

Indians have blamed globalization as the cause of unethical sexual practices. Mexico is different from India since it is a country susceptible to foreign influence, especially the United States. In addition, globalization has also encouraged an increasing level of tolerance towards homosexuals especially in major Mexican cities where education and access to foreigners and foreign media that have contributed to tolerance towards homosexuality. There is also an increase in the casting of gay characters in Mexican soap operas, which is a way of promoting the acceptance of individuals with unique sexual preferences. Despite this level of acceptance of homosexuality, there is slow progress in the hinterlands and sometimes in other cities where discomfort to change has led to backlashes between heterosexuals and the homosexual community (Carrillo 61-62).

Masculinity and femininity
Young men in the Indian culture grow and are socialized in a male subjugated society. These men grow with limited contact in the post-pubertal period with female age mates. Furthermore, both female and male youth are socialized into adulthood with little or no sex education whose role is to acculturate the male and female youth to sexuality and appropriate gender relations. In the Indian context, gender roles disparities intensify and broaden in the adolescent stage where young boys enjoy new rights reserved for men. These rights include autonomy, mobility, opportunity and power while girls in this society endure restrictions when their parents limit their movement.

In some instances, girls in the Indian society are withdrawn from school and their interaction with the male children is closely monitored (Verma & Mahendra 71). It is important to note that these societal privileges and restrictions play an essential role in teenage reproductive conduct including future health and well-being. Families in the Indian society restrict both social and physical movement of the female children by restraining them within the domestic sphere. The reasons for this form of restriction are explained in two ways: keeping them away from the public arena and keeping them in the family as a way of socializing them into the lifelong role of a wife and a mother. Girls in the Indian society the female children are encouraged to help their mothers and other female relatives with chores such as childcare, preparation of food and farm duties. Furthermore, in the process of socialization into motherhood, girls are encouraged to be docile and compliant (Verma & Mahendra 71-72).

In traditional Mexican society gender, roles of male and females were reflected in spatial distinctions of the streets (la calle) and the home (la casa). Men in this society were able to leave home freely for work or pleasure because they were masculine individuals. Part of their role was to the family and to do this they required nobody’s permission. The permission to be on the streets implied that men had freedom for working and even engage in unacceptable behavior such as consumption of alcohol and infidelity. Men could not be condemned for reprehensible behavior since they provided financial support to the household (�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������M�a�c�i�a�s�-�G�o�n�z�a�l�e�z�,� �e�t� �a�l� �2�5�)�.� �T�h�e� �h�o�m�e� �(�l�a� �c�a�s�a�)� �r�e�p�r�e�s�e�n�t�e�d� �t�h�e� �f�e�m�a�l�e� �s�p�a�c�e�.� �I�t� �w�a�s� �a� �s�p�a�c�e� �t�h�a�t� �c�h�a�r�a�c�t�e�r�i�z�e�d� �b�y� �s�y�s�t�e�m�a�t�i�z�e�d� �a�n�d� �m�a�n�a�g�e�d� �s�e�x�u�a�l�i�t�y� �a�s� �o�p�p�o�s�e�d� �t�o� �t�h�e� �s�e�x�u�a�l� �d�a�n�g�e�r�s� �a�n�d� �c�o�n�f�u�s�i�o�n� �o�f� �t�h�e� �s�t�r�e�e�t�s�.� �T�h�e� �g�e�n�d�e�r� �r�o�l�e�s� �a�t�t�r�i�b�u�t�e�d� �t�o� �w�o�m�e�n� �w�e�r�e� �aimed at protecting them from harsh conditions that men had to endure in their endeavors to work for the family. Women in the Mexican cultures were expected to be homemakers taking care of the home and children while men worked outside the home. In the Mexican culture, there were few opportunities for women to work outside their homes. Furthermore, a woman could be reprimanded if seen outside without a man by her side. The result of this form of distinction in gender roles, marriages in the Mexican society have their basis on respect and a hierarchy of power where the woman is often subordinate to the demands of their husband. The primary role of women in this culture is to obey their husbands while providing the necessary care to the children and their homes (�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������M�a�c�i�a�s�-�G�o�n�z�a�l�e�z�,� �e�t� �a�l� �2�7�-�2�8�)�.� �
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The societal expectation of women to be compliant and respectful to their husbands in the Indian culture contributes to practices such as early and arranged marriages, and domestic violence, which in itself necessitates activities, that are harmful to the sexual health of Indian women. The existing power imbalance between males and females make it impossible for women to initiate discussions on sexual matters, which are considered shameful in the male domain (Verma & Mahendra 72-73).

The Mexican definition of gender roles have been affected by several factors such as migration and globalization of economies. Through these factors, women in Mexico have been gaining autonomy and they are able to make essential decisions in their families independently. Gender roles defined by femininity and masculinity have been modernized into a different lived reality for men and women alike in the Mexican culture. In as much as much of the traditional gender roles and spatial images remain prevalent, immigration and the modern influence have shifted many of these norms as members of both genders are actively engaged in every sector of the Mexican economy (�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������M�a�c�i�a�s�-�G�o�n�z�a�l�e�z�,� �e�t� �a�l� �2�8�)�.� �
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The Difference between Shia and Sunni Muslims

Introduction
The relationship between Shia Muslims and Sunni Muslims in ideologies bore the same characteristics as that of Protestants and Catholics. The Muslim religion split into two principal subgroups: the Shia (also known as Shiites) and the Sunni. The two subgroups share the fundamental Islamic faith and beliefs. Their differences are not religious, but rather, they are political. Their differences can be traced from the death of Prophet Muhammad, who founded their empire.

Disputes erupted over how his successor would be chosen. One group claimed that the office should be occupied by a person from a Meccan tribe. This group became the Sunni Muslims. The second group claimed that a descendant of Muhammad should occupy the caliph. This group became the Shia Muslims (Furze 209). It was a matter of leadership. Each group wanted to be the leader of other Muslim nations.

The Sunni forms the largest division of Islam while the Shia forms the second largest group of Islam. The Sunni occupies about 85 percent of the world’s Muslim population. Their differences, therefore, cover distribution, religious practices, leadership and religious texts. Despite their differences, both Shia and Sunni believe in Allah, the only God. They also believe in Muhammad, His Prophet, and Quran is their holy book. Both groups can worship in one mosque, regardless of the mosques leader.

Distribution
After the death of Muhammad, Islam spread extensively in Middle East, Africa and some parts of south Europe (Furze 209). About 75 percent of people in Egypt, Jordan, Turkey and Palestine Territories, are Sunni. Majority of the Muslims in the world is the Sunni, who takes 85 percent of the entire Muslim population. They were also referred to as orthodox Muslims. The other 15 percent remaining is the Shia Muslims together with other minority Muslim groups. Shia Muslims reside primarily in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Yemen, Lebanon and Bahrain.

The question of leadership
The Sunni Muslims recognizes that the first four of Mohammad successors (caliphs) as the leaders of Muslims and their heirs as permitted Islam leaders. On the other hand, the Shia believed that the only legitimate successors of Mohammed are the heirs of the fourth caliph. The Sunni had a belief that Muhammad’s wife’s father, Abu Bakr, was the legitimate successor of Muhammad and that the method applied to select leaders clearly displayed by the Quran. The Shiites stand on the ground that Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, divinely appointed by Muhammad in accordance with God’s command. Ali should have been ordained to be the next caliph thus making him the direct successor of Muhammad.

Religious practices
Several practices and behaviors make a distinction between the Shia and the Sunni; their names, appearances, prayers, rituals and celebrations. Almost all Muslims use the name Mohammad, which is a common name that refers to the prophet. However, other name bears the marks of either Sunni or Shia Muslim. Names like Ali, Hussein, Hassan and Zahra are for Shia group while Omar and Othman are for Sunnis. In appearance, those who have mustache shave their heads entirely, or wear small caps are the Sunni Muslims. Those with ranks in their religion wear a turban, with a piece of clothe material which should be wrapped around a red cap. As for the Shia group, their clerks wrap a black turban around the head, to indicate that they are from the line of the prophet. Those who are not of that bloodline normally wear a white turban. The secular Shiites, who mostly located in Iran, do not wear ties. They normally wear shirts with no color and trim their beards without shaving. Youths can be spotted with tattoos mainly on their arms.

The Sunni have verses of Quran suspended in their houses while the Shia Muslims hang portraits of Hussein, displaying how he met his death. The Shia Muslims also have the sword Thur alfiqar portraits in their houses, together with names of Ali and Hussein hang on the frames. Both Shia and Sunnis sects lay emphasis on the five key pillars of Islam. The difference comes in reference to history of Muhammad’s family. Sunnis do not pay much emphasis on Imam; thus they have a less structured form of religious leaders called caliphs (Burnell 136). Caliphs are the advisers of the community and also teachers of Islam, but not chosen by Allah.\

It is a bit difficult to distinguish a Sunni woman Muslim from a Shiite woman Muslim. In Saudi Arabia, which is a Sunni Muslim country, lay emphasis on women to wear a black dress covering the entire body from head to the toes. This applies the same to Iran, which is a Shiite Muslim country, where it is mandatory for women to wear a black dress that does not show any flesh. In moderate Islamic countries, Sunni Muslim women only cover their head, neck and ears, with a veil. As long as they do not reveal their bodies, they can wear any dress. Moderate Shiite Muslim women differentiate themselves from the rest by wearing a veil and putting a pin on the left side.

All Muslims should pray five times each day. When praying, both the Shia and the Sunni kneel on a carpet or a mat. When kneeling, the Shiites make their heads touch turba; a small stone comes from Najaf, the holy city. The Sunnis, while praying, fold their arms over each other and put them slightly below the rib cage. The Shia Muslims just keep their stretched arms down. The Shia Muslims end their prayers after the Sunnis. When it comes to fasting, one group has to celebrate the end of Ramadan slightly earlier than the other. Shia Muslims in Iraq observe more holidays than the Sunni. One of their most celebrated holidays is Ashura, which commemorates their Imam Husayn (Carpenter 219). Sunni Muslims go to the mosques to pray, and their mosques always have minarets and domes. Shia Muslims often worship in Husseiniya, with no minarets or domes. This is also the place where they commemorate the death of Hussein.

Conclusion
Muslim religion and community cannot be explained without reference to the two main groups; the Shia (Shiites) and the Sunni. Their differences started when the Prophet Muhammad died in the 7th century. Confusion emerged concerning who would lead the Muslims. Different views lead to separation of these groups, where the Sunni chose Abu Bakr to be the caliph while as the Shia chose Ali, the prophet’s son-in-law, to be the caliph. This division showed the succession as politically defined rather than spiritual context, which the Muslim faith professes. Though both groups believed Muhammad as the final prophet, it should not apply that Muhammad descendants were also prophets. This division has lead to many wars, which has widened their gap up to date.

Work Cited
Burnell, Peter J, and Vicky Randall. Politics in the Developing World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 136, 2008. Print.
Carpenter, Clive. Middle East, Western Asia and Northern Africa. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 219, 2006. Print.
Furze, Brian, and Brian Furze. Sociology in Today’s World. South Melbourne, Vic: Cengage Learning Australia, 209, 2012. Print.
HowToDoThings.com. How To Differentiate Between a Sunni Muslim and a Shiite Muslim. Web. 31st October, 2012 http://www.howtodothings.com/religion-spirituality/how-to-differentiate-between-a-sunni-muslim-and-a-shiite-muslim

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