How Does the Mining Industry Contribute to Ghana’s Economy?

Abstract

The mining subsector in Ghana is considered to be playing a critical part in the growth and development of it socioeconomic aspects. Currently, in the world Ghana is ranked tenth in particular to gold mining. Ghanaian mining industry is a pivotal contributor to the nation’s exports as it accounts for five percent of the country’s GDP and makes up 37 percent of what the country exports outside. Of all the country’s mining, gold makes up over 95 percent of all the minerals exported making it the second gold producing country in Africa. Supplementary products mined include manganese, diamonds, bauxite, salt, and gasoline. How does the mining industry contribute to Ghana’s economy? This is a key question that will be the focus of this study. In relation to research and study findings, the mining and quarrying industry accounts for an estimated 1 percent of the overall employment in the country. In addition to this, following the legalization of small scale mining operation back in the late 1980s to early 1990s, there has been an increase in employment both directly and indirect. This is in particular to the growing youth population in the country that accounts for a significant percentage of the overall population. One of the key factors that have influenced the growth of mining industry in the country is the restructuring of the sector back in the 1980s. One of the key focus areas of this restructuring was to encourage both local and foreign investors in the private sector to indulge in the industry.
Annotated Bibliography

Economic Commision for Africa. “Ghana: Country Case Study.” Economic Report on Africa . 2013. Print.
This report aims at analyzing the key factors that have played a critical part in influencing the mining sector in Ghana. In relation to the author, the restricting of the policy systems and laws that were in place has created a strong foundation for the growth of the industry. This has in turn, added greatly to the overall GDP of the country through the creation of more jobs and new industries. The policies in place have not only benefited the mining workers, but also farmers boosting the growth of the economy. This report will provide adequate information on the drivers of the industry enhancing it to impact the economy of Ghana positively.
Aryee, Benjamin. Ghana’s mining sector: its contribution to the national economy. Resource Policy 27. Accra: Pergamon, 2001. Print.
Ideally, the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) by the government in 1983, created a strong foundation for the growth and development of the minerals and mining sector. In relation to the author, he analyzes the impact that some of the large industries in Ghana had on the economy and country at large. Moreover, this provides a general view of how the industries are fairing on, what are the challenges they are facing and how best to deal with the challenges. Although the industry has improved the economic development of the country, it still has not fully optimized its potential.
Aryeetey, E., Osei, B and Twerefou, D.K. Globalization, employment and livelihoods in the mining sector of Ghana. ESSER Occasional Paper. 2004. Print.
This paper analyses the process that the minerals and mining industry has undergone over the years. This is in addition to the new reforms that were introduced in the early 1980s to better the industry at large. So far, the industry is a key contributor to the growth of socio-economy of Ghana

Akabzaa, T.M. Boom and Dislocation: The Environmental and Social Impacts of Mining in the Wassa West District of the Western Region of Ghana. Accra: Third World Network-Africa Publication, 2000. Print.
According to the author, although the mining industry in Ghana is improving and boosting the economy, there is still not enough evidence to show that the industry is improving. However, with the introduction of better policies from the government, this is bound to change for the better in the future.
Ayee, Joseph, and Gangadhar P. Shukla. Political Economy of the Mining Sector in Ghana. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2011. Print.
Although, Ghana has over the years been known as a country with vast minerals, it has over the years not been able to fully optimize the industry to propel their economy to great heights. Coming up with renewed and better policies to improve the industry is one way that will help in overcoming the challenges.
Alpine, Robin W. L., and James Pickett. Agriculture, liberalization and economic growth in Ghana an�d� �C�o�t�e� �d�’�I�v�o�i�r�e�,� �1�9�6�0�-�1�9�9�0�.� �P�a�r�i�s�:� �O�E�C�D�,� �1�9�9�3�.� �P�r�i�n�t�.�
�M�u�c�h� �o�f� �t�h�e� �g�r�o�w�t�h� �i�n� �t�h�e� �o�u�t�p�u�t� �o�f� �t�h�e� �c�o�u�n�t�r�y� �c�a�n� �b�e� �a�t�t�r�i�b�u�t�e�d� �t�o� �t�h�e� �m�i�n�i�n�g� �i�n�d�u�s�t�r�y� �i�n� �a�d�d�i�t�i�o�n� �t�o� �a�g�r�i�c�u�l�t�u�r�e�.� �T�h�i�s� �i�s� �c�o�n�s�i�d�e�r�e�d� �t�o� �h�a�v�e� �p�l�a�y�e�d� �a� �c�r�i�t�i�c�a�l� �r�o�l�e� �i�n� �b�o�o�s�t�i�n�g� �t�h�e� �g�r�o�w�t�h� �o�f� �t�h�e� �e�c�o�nomy to the current state of around 5 percent.
Gier, Jaclyn J.. Mining women: gender in the development of a global industry, 1670-2000. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print.
The author tries to address the issue of women taking part in some of the mining jobs. It is an indication that the mining industry has created more jobs and opportunities for youth and women. This in turn, improves the overall output of the country boosting the economy.
Report on the aggregation/reconciliation of mining benefits in Ghana. Accra: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative-GHEITI):, 2007. Print.
Increasing the policies that govern the mining industry in Ghana will better improve its impact on the economy. Moreover, creating more job opportunities should not take advantage of the vast labor workforce available. This will better improve the effect of the industry on the economy.
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������L�e�i�t�e�,� �S�e�r�g�i�o� �P�e�r�e�i�r�a�.� �G�h�a�n�a�:� �e�c�o�n�o�m�i�c� �d�e�v�e�l�o�p�m�e�n�t� �i�n� �a� �d�e�m�o�c�r�a�t�i�c� �e�n�v�i�r�o�n�m�e�n�t�.� �W�a�s�h�i�n�g�t�o�n�,� �D�C�:� �I�n�t�e�r�n�a�t�i�o�n�a�l� �M�o�n�e�t�a�r�y� �F�u�n�d�,� �2�0�0�0�.� �P�r�i�n�t�.�
�A�c�c�o�r�d�i�n�g� �t�o� �t�h�e� �a�u�t�h�o�r� �i�t� �i�s� �c�r�i�t�i�c�a�l� �t�o� �u�n�d�e�r�s�t�a�n�d� �t�h�e� �o�v�e�r�a�l�l� �i�m�p�a�c�t� �t�h�a�t� �t�h�e� �m�i�n�i�n�g� �i�n�d�u�s�t�r�y� �i�n� �G�h�a�n�a� �c�a�n� �h�a�v�e� �o�n� the economy, if provide with the right foundation. Although the reforms in the 1980s improved the situation, the impact that the mining industry has on the economy is still not at its optimum.
Economic Commission for Africa. Improving public participation in the sustainable development of mineral resources in Africa. 2005. Print.
According to the report, although Ghana’s economy has had a significant boost in terms of development and growth, it still has reached its full potential. With the introduction of new reform policies, the mining industry can boost the economy to greater heights.
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Improving Public Participation in the Sustainable Development of Mineral Resources in Africa. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. 2004. Print.
The mining industry in Africa is vast and plays a critical role in the growth and development of some of the African countries such as Ghana. Setting the right measures in place will significantly improve this sector and in turn improving the socio economy of the country.
ISSER (Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research). The State of the Ghanaian Economy in 2008. Accra: ISSER. 2009. Print.
The reforms that were introduced in the early 1980s have played a significant role in pushing the Ghanaian economy to its current state. However, additional factors should be taken into consideration to further improve the socio-economy of the country.

Works Cited

Aryee, Benjamin. Ghana’s mining sector: its contribution to the national economy. Resource Policy 27. Accra: Pergamon, 2001. Print.
Aryeetey, E., Osei, B and Twerefou, D.K. Globalization, employment and livelihoods in the mining sector of Ghana. ESSER Occasional Paper. 2004. Print.
Akabzaa, T.M. Boom and Dislocation: The Environmental and Social Impacts of Mining in the Wassa West District of the Western Region of Ghana. Accra: Third World Network-Africa Publication, 2000. Print.
Ayee, Joseph, and Gangadhar P. Shukla. Political Economy of the Mining Sector in Ghana. �W�a�s�h�i�n�g�t�o�n�,� �D�.�C�.�:� �T�h�e� �W�o�r�l�d� �B�a�n�k�,� �2�0�1�1�.� �P�r�i�n�t�.�
�A�l�p�i�n�e�,� �R�o�b�i�n� �W�.� �L�.�,� �a�n�d� �J�a�m�e�s� �P�i�c�k�e�t�t�.� �A�g�r�i�c�u�l�t�u�r�e�,� �l�i�b�e�r�a�l�i�z�a�t�i�o�n� �a�n�d� �e�c�o�n�o�m�i�c� �g�r�o�w�t�h� �i�n� �G�h�a�n�a� �a�n�d� �C�o�t�e� �d�’�I�v�o�i�r�e�,� �1�9�6�0�-�1�9�9�0�.� �P�a�r�i�s�:� �O�E�C�D�,� �1�9�9�3�.� �P�r�i�n�t�.�
�G�i�e�r�,� �J�a�c�l�y�n� �J�.� �M�i�n�i�n�g� �w�o�m�e�n�:� �g�e�n�d�e�r� �i�n� �t�h�e� �d�e�v�e�l�o�p�m�e�n�t of a global industry, 1670-2000. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print.
Report on the aggregation/reconciliation of mining benefits in Ghana. Accra: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative-GHEITI):, 2007. Print.

Corporate Social Responsibility in the Gold Mining Sector

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a term used to refer to a variety of issues concerning the interactions of organizations with the society, for instance, ethics, community involvement, product safety, and other social welfare initiatives. CSR practices are becoming an integral part of companies in this globalization era as it allows them to position their brands stronger, strengthen their image, and increase their market share and ability to retain and attract employees (Mermod & Idowu, 2013, p. 13). This paper explores sustainability or CSR reports for companies in the gold mining sector. It seeks to identify tensions between economic and social, social and environmental, or economic and environmental issues addressed in the reports. The paper finally discusses the tensions between the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) elements that are inherent in the gold mining sector. The gold mining companies whose CSR reports have been explored include Barrick Gold, Banro, and New Gold corporations.
The 2012 CSR Report Summary

Barrick Gold Corporation

Barrick is the world’s leading gold producer does not discharge any processing water into the environment in about 70 percent of its operations (Barrick Gold Corporation, 2012, p. 2). Along with recycling and reusing, the company is seeking other innovative ways to reduce water use in its operations. Apart from generating and purchasing 19 percent of its electrical power from renewable sources of energy, the company has also improved its greenhouse gas emissions by 4.7 percent as a strategy of combating global warming and climate change. It has established a mechanism in all its operation sites that fully addresses any raised grievances by employees and the community. In 2012, the company further provided scholarships to more than 2,500 children in nine countries in which it operates. It improved employee safety as its total reportable injury frequency rates declined by 18 percent. It enhanced sustainability by sourcing 87 percent of its purchases from local and regional suppliers in areas where it operates. Approximately 56 percent of its operations have an excellent certification under the environmental management system standard. It undertook 2.2 million hours of employee and contractor training on safety, environment and emergency response, and 56 percent of its suppliers are certified under the company’s code of business conduct and ethics.

Banro Corporation

This Canadian gold exploration, development, and mining company undertake most of its operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where it fully owns four properties. Between 2004 and 2011, the company has invested approximately $ 2,538,810 million in education, healthcare, social infrastructure, humanitarian assistance, community support, and conservation initiatives through its foundation (Banro Corporation, 2012). It is currently building a new multi-purpose women’s health unit at the Panzi General Referral Hospital in Bukavu that will support prenatal consultation, family planning and HIV sensitization, child health, and other activities related to women’s health.

New Gold Corporation

This company has operations in Canada, Mexico, United States, Australia, and Chile. The company standardized its health and safety systems across all its operations, and reduced its total reportable injury frequency rate by 6 percent (New Gold, 2012, p. 5-7). It completed performance and development plans for 77 percent of its employees, and has improved its community engagement and development as it has updated its stakeholder’s map and mechanisms for addressing grievances. It is currently implementing several sustainable development programs to help realize local economic impacts in its areas of operation. It has taken a proactive risk management approach to safeguarding the environment by adopting several international environment management protocols, for instance, those regarding water recycling and reuse, and reduction of greenhouse emissions.

Economic and Social Tensions Addressed in the Reports

Employee development and engagement issue has been addressed by all the three companies. They have created jobs and economic opportunities for local populations that are further trained to improve their productive capacities. These companies have been employing more locals into its workforce to supervisory or management position to attain equity and improve their acceptance by the local communities. Apart from pursuing profits, they are also involved in economic and social development of local communities through their contribution in payment of taxes, the building of infrastructure, and transfer of technology and skills, among others. Local populations displaced by the mining activities of these companies are adequately compensated and voluntary resettled in alternative lands. Banro, for instance, voluntarily resettled 463 households when it was building and commencing production at the Twangiza mine in DRC. They have eased tensions between them and local communities through undertaking environmental and social impact assessments, in consultation with the community stakeholders and organizations to enhance the understanding of social and economic relationships between a mine and the surrounding community. This includes the understanding of positive and negative impacts arising from the mining operations. Tensions between the economic activities of the company and the society have been addressed through increased sourcing of purchases from local and regional suppliers from the areas it operates.

Economic and Environmental Tensions Addressed in the Reports

The negative impacts resulting from the economic activities of these companies have been addressed through the recycling and reuse of water used in the mining operations. They have embarked on energy and emissions management by decreasing energy consumption and greenhouse emissions, and increasing energy efficiency and renewable energy sources. Land reclamation and habitat restoration is being undertaken at the end of every mining cycle to maintain biodiversity.
Inherent Tensions Between Triple Bottom Line Elements in Gold Mining Sector
Triple Bottom Line (TBL) is a holistic concept of sustainability, where environmental, social, and economic considerations are identified and addressed simultaneously in decision-making; and is often interchangeably used with CSR (World Summit on Sustainable Development, Hens, & Nath, 2005, p. 268). Tensions between social and economic bottom line developments have been inherent in the gold mining sector. Considering that gold is a highly valuable metal, most decisions made in the gold mining sector have largely ignored social sustainability issues. Local populations living lands with gold deposits are often displaced and resettled elsewhere without proper compensation and consideration of their culture and heritage. Massive profits from this venture is accrued by the gold exploration, development, and mining companies that are mostly foreign owned, thereby resulting in unequal distribution of wealth and social development, both locally and regionally. The sector is dominated by cases of labor inequalities, corruption, security, health, and safety issues, especially where operations are located in developing countries (Lether & Scott, 2012, p. 105).

References
Banro Corporation. (2012). A new direction for the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo 2012 Corporate: 2012 corporate sustainability report. Retrieved from: http://www.banro.com/i/pdf/Banro_CSR_2012_ENGLISH.pdf
Barrick Gold Corporation. (2012). Barrick 2012 corporate responsibility report. Retrieved from: http://www.barrick.com/files/responsibility-report/2012/Barrick-2012-Corporate-Responsibility-Report.pdf
Letcher, T., & Scott, J.L. (2012). Materials for a sustainable future. Sted: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Mermod, A.Y., & Idowu, S.O. (2013). Corporate social responsibility in the global business world. Heidelberg : Springer.
New Gold. (2012). Growing responsibly: 2012 sustainability report summary. Retrieved from: http://2012sustainabilityreport.newgold.com/newgold-csr-2012-en.pdf
World Summit on Sustainable Development, Hens, L., & Nath, B. (2005). The world summit on sustainable development: The Johannesburg conference. Dordrecht: Springer.

CSR IN GOLD MINING SECTOR 6

Running head: CSR IN GOLD MINING SECTOR 1

Titanium mining in Kwale Kenya

Victimization and environmental destruction of Kenya comes up in the wake of increased competition between the West and China, for Kenya’s and Africa’s natural mineral wealth. There has been a growing presence and influence of the Chinese in Africa in the past decade. The Chinese have penetrated in all levels of Africa’s developing economies, offering aid and investment in return for Africa’s minerals. This has happened despite the presence of Western countries, which are Africa’s traditional trading and investing partners. The Chinese and Western companies are responsible for wrecking the environment in Kenya, as well as in the African continent as they seek to mine minerals. The growing influence of Chinese mineral exploitation and investment in Africa will increase the level of anxiety about exploitation levels and victimization of local African people.

African countries are the new growth frontiers for the global economy, since they offer significant growth opportunities not experienced elsewhere. The growth of political, economic, and social integration of Chinese and Western countries onto Africa will cause a change in the existing order, which facilitates the exploitation of African countries. The titanium-mining project in Kwale Kenya is a case study of how Western companies use their capital to exploit technologically and capital poor African countries.
The mining project has an approximate lifespan of 13 years. After years of controversies and false starts, the project kicked off in October 2013. Despite much fanfare at the beginning of the mining process, the future of this project does not augur well for the development of Kwale and Kenya. Titanium mining uses strip mining. Over the project duration, the company will excavate the land to remove the soil, which contains the mineral ore. This leaves behind unproductive land, which is not fit for use after the completion of the project. The company will not reclaim the land and will leave open pits that are dangerous to people and animals.
The projected income from the mining project begins to drop after around two years from the project’s commissioning. This time is shorter than the time it takes for the company to break even. This implies that the expected royalties from the project are going to be minimal. The benefits of the project to the development of the country are limited. In mining terms, a period of 13 years of useful mining is relatively short. The new Kenyan constitution created county governments. Kwale County is one of the poorest counties in Kenya. The expected income from royalties does not match the environmental degradation caused by the project.

African countries historically had weak regulatory regimes. The weak oversight becomes worse because of the rampant corruption on the part of those entrusted with the mandate to protect the interests of the citizens. Western companies influence the passing of laws affecting their operations by bribing corrupt officials to change the laws. International mining agreements are complex. African countries have neither the capital nor the expertise to exploit their abundant mineral resources. Western companies use high-powered delegations to pressure African governments to rush into offering mining concessions without due process. Sometimes the companies offer incentives to the elite, which do not benefit the ordinary citizens, to speed the process of acquiring mining licenses.
African countries should stand up and protect the interests of their citizens from exploitation. African governments should pass modern laws regulating the exploitation of minerals. Most African countries still use mining laws inherited from the colonial governments. These laws were Eurocentric and do not protect the interests of the citizens. African countries should also put emphasis on land reclamation and the use of safe mining practices. In efforts to cut costs and increase their profitability, Western countries use the cheapest mining methods to extract minerals. These methods are not environmental friendly and cause wanton destruction of the environment.
The practice of openness and accountability in the bidding and awarding of tenders to exploit minerals is essential. Most African countries enter into secretive and exclusive mining agreements with western companies. The mining agreements are not scrutinized to ensure that the country gets the best deal possible. The secrecy of the negotiations opens the door to the abuse of the process. The few negotiators are easily compromised leading to the signing of lopsided deals. To guard against this, mining agreements should be open to public scrutiny before the government commits itself to the deal.

The Kenyan government can act as a role model in the new mining deals expected to be struck across Africa. The country promulgated a new constitution, which gives guidelines on the exploitation and sharing of mineral wealth. The country should enact enabling legislation, which explicitly sets out how mining agreements come into force. The country has been in the news recently due to the discovery of commercially viable oil deposits within its borders. For most African cou9ntries, the discovery of oil has been a curse rather than a blessing. It will be interesting to see if the country can use the oil resources recently discovered to provide leadership to the African continent on how to exploit the resource without conflict arising.

Surname 1

How Does the Mining Industry Contribute to Ghana’s Economy?

Abstract

The mining subsector in Ghana is considered to be playing a critical part in the growth and development of it socioeconomic aspects. Currently, in the world Ghana is ranked tenth in particular to gold mining. Ghanaian mining industry is a pivotal contributor to the nation’s exports as it accounts for five percent of the country’s GDP and makes up 37 percent of what the country exports outside. Of all the country’s mining, gold makes up over 95 percent of all the minerals exported making it the second gold producing country in Africa. Supplementary products mined include manganese, diamonds, bauxite, salt, and gasoline. How does the mining industry contribute to Ghana’s economy? This is a key question that will be the focus of this study. In relation to research and study findings, the mining and quarrying industry accounts for an estimated 1 percent of the overall employment in the country. In addition to this, following the legalization of small scale mining operation back in the late 1980s to early 1990s, there has been an increase in employment both directly and indirect. This is in particular to the growing youth population in the country that accounts for a significant percentage of the overall population. One of the key factors that have influenced the growth of mining industry in the country is the restructuring of the sector back in the 1980s. One of the key focus areas of this restructuring was to encourage both local and foreign investors in the private sector to indulge in the industry.

Project Outline

Introduction

Research Question: How does the mining industry contribute to Ghana’s economy?
The topic is relevant in the sense that it will help in coming up with solutions that are currently affecting the mining industry in Ghana. In addition, it will provide a platform to analyze whether the policies in place are effective or not. The current impact that the industry has on the economy of Ghana is not at its optimum and requires more reforms.
Literature Review
It will cover reforms and policies in place pertaining to the mining industry in Ghana, factors affecting the industry and current impact of some of the large mining industries in the country. This will be from some of the following points of view; political aspect, socio-economic aspect and development.
Sources employed in the paper will comprise of relevant books, scholarly articles and policy reports.
Analysis
Economic status of Ghana at from 1980s to present. This will be divided on a 10 year period and based on the following
GDP growth
Employment status
Inflation rate
Private sector and public sector role in the country in particular to the mining industry
Evaluation
Policies and reforms that have been introduced and implemented in relation to the mining industry
Successive governments and their action plans in relation to the mining industry
Steps taken and opportunities created to further the growth and development of the industry
Conclusion
Summary of the growth pattern of the industry
Past failures and mistakes
Past successes
Recommendations
Reviewing and reforming of the policies
Creation of more investment opportunities
Equitable sharing of resources

Annotated Bibliography

Economic Commission for Africa. “Ghana: Country Case Study.” Economic Report on Africa . 2013. Print.
This report aims at analyzing the key factors that have played a critical part in influencing the mining sector in Ghana. In relation to the author, the restricting of the policy systems and laws that were in place has created a strong foundation for the growth of the industry. This has in turn, added greatly to the overall GDP of the country through the creation of more jobs and new industries. The policies in place have not only benefited the mining workers, but also farmers boosting the growth of the economy. This report will provide adequate information on the drivers of the industry enhancing it to impact the economy of Ghana positively.
Aryee, Benjamin. Ghana’s mining sector: its contribution to the national economy. Resource Policy 27. Accra: Pergamon, 2001. Print.
Ideally, the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) by the government in 1983, created a strong foundation for the growth and development of the minerals and mining sector. In relation to the author, he analyzes the impact that some of the large industries in Ghana had on the economy and country at large. Moreover, this provides a general view of how the industries are fairing on, what are the challenges they are facing and how best to deal with the challenges. Although the industry has improved the economic development of the country, it still has not fully optimized its potential.
Aryeetey, E., Osei, B and Twerefou, D.K. Globalization, employment and livelihoods in the mining sector of Ghana. ESSER Occasional Paper. 2004. Print.
This paper analyses the process that the minerals and mining industry has undergone over the years. This is in addition to the new reforms that were introduced in the early 1980s to better the industry at large. So far, the industry is a key contributor to the growth of socio-economy of Ghana
Akabzaa, T.M. Boom and Dislocation: The Environmental and Social Impacts of Mining in the Wassa West District of the Western Region of Ghana. Accra: Third World Network-Africa Publication, 2000. Print.
According to the author, although the mining industry in Ghana is improving and boosting the economy, there is still not enough evidence to show that the industry is improving. However, with the introduction of better policies from the government, this is bound to change for the better in the future.
Ayee, Joseph, and Gangadhar P. Shukla. Political Economy of the Mining Sector in Ghana. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2011. Print.
Although, Ghana has over the years been known as a country with vast minerals, it has over the years not been able to fully optimize the industry to propel their economy to great heights. Coming up with renewed and better policies to improve the industry is one way that will help  mining industry in addition to agriculture. This is considered to have played a critical role in boosting the growth of the economy to the current state of around 5 percent.
Gier, Jaclyn J.. Mining women: gender in the development of a global industry, 1670-2000. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print.
The author tries to address the issue of women taking part in some of the mining jobs. It is an indication that the mining industry has created more jobs and opportunities for youth and women. This in turn, improves the overall output of the country boosting the economy.
Report on the aggregation/reconciliation of mining benefits in Ghana. Accra: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative-GHEITI):, 2007. Print.
Increasing the policies that govern the mining industry in Ghana will better improve its impact on the economy. Moreover, creating more job opportunities should not take advantage of the vast labor workforce available. This will better improve the the mining industry in Ghana can have on the economy, if provide with the right foundation. Although the reforms in the 1980s improved the situation, the impact that the mining industry has on the economy is still not at its optimum.
Economic Commission for Africa. Improving public participation in the sustainable development of mineral resources in Africa. 2005. Print.
According to the report, although Ghana’s economy has had a significant boost in terms of development and growth, it still has reached its full potential. With the introduction of new reform policies, the mining industry can boost the economy to greater heights.
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Improving Public Participation in the Sustainable Development of Mineral Resources in Africa. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. 2004. Print.
The mining industry in Africa is vast and plays a critical role in the growth and development of some of the African countries such as Ghana. Setting the right measures in place will significantly improve this sector and in turn improving the socio economy of the country.
ISSER (Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research). The State of the Ghanaian Economy in 2008. Accra: ISSER. 2009. Print.
The reforms that were introduced in the early 1980s have played a significant role in pushing the Ghanaian economy to its current state. However, additional factors should be taken into consideration to further improve the socio-economy of the country.

Works Cited
Aryee, Benjamin. Ghana’s mining sector: its contribution to the national economy. Resource Policy 27. Accra: Pergamon, 2001. Print.
Aryeetey, E., Osei, B and Twerefou, D.K. Globalization, employment and livelihoods in the mining sector of Ghana. ESSER Occasional Paper. 2004. Print.
Akabzaa, T.M. Boom and Dislocation: The Environmental and Social Impacts of Mining in the Wassa West District of the Western Region of Ghana. Accra: Third World Network-Africa Publication, 2000. Print.
Mining women: gender in the development of a global industry, 1670-2000. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print.
Report on the aggregation/reconciliation of mining benefits in Ghana. Accra: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative-GHEITI):, 2007. Print.

The Challenges Faced During Data Mining

Data mining refers to the act of unleashing fascinating facts from huge logs of databases, anomalies, data warehouses, changes, associations, important structures, patterns among other phenomenal (Galloway and Sminoff 3). While some researchers view data mining as a tool of awareness venture in database, others view it as a key step of awareness discovery. This paper evaluates the challenges faced during data mining.
The major key goals of data mining are description and prediction in practice (Gianella, Bhargawa and Kargupta 4). Description covers the human-interpretable analysis elaborating the data whereas prediction involves the usage of certain fields or variables in a database to prognosticate future utility of interested variables. The goals of the above high levels are achieved by applying the following key data mining errands: first is classification, which refers to the process of examining an outcome that classifies data of article into various presumed classes. Secondly is regression, which refers to the process of learning an outcome, which classifies data article to a real-valued presumption variable. Thirdly is clustering, which is a common depictive task where one aims at distinguishing a restricted set of clusters to elaborate the data. Fourth, is summarization, which involves techniques for acquiring a solid elaboration for a subset of data. Fifth is dependency modeling, which involves discovering a model that depicts important dependencies linking variables. It is divided into structural level where variables depend on each other locally and quantitative level that depicts the weight of dependencies using certain numerical scale. Lastly is the change and deviation detection, which focuses on availing important changes in data from formerly measured values (Gianella, Bhargawa and Kargupta 4).

The theories explaining the formulation of a Unified Data Mining can be either detailed or shallow, but in regard to science, the best theory is one that elaborates the details in scientific disciplines. According to physicists, there are various forces, which influence substances in the world (Gianella, Bhargawa and Kargupta 45). These forces include the gravitational force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the strong force. A unified theory is one that has a full set of essentials, preciseness, consistency, comprehensiveness and correctness. In order to fully understand the theoretical part of unification, several inventions need to be considered together with their inventors. A unified theory of mechanism was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 to explain all heavenly and earthly movements. The atomic theory was revived by John Dalton to explain the physical nature of all substances (Yang 46).
The theory of the cell was developed by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann to explain the primary structure of living things (Yang 48). A unified theory of evolution by natural selection was invented by Charles Darwin in 1859 to explain the volatility of living organisms (Yang 50). Periodic system was presented by James Clerk Maxwell in the mid 1800 to explain the relation of magnetic and electric fields. Evidence illustrating that light and radio waves are electromagnetic waves was demonstrated by Hertz in 1884 as prognosticated by Maxwell’s theory. Albert Einstein explained the relativity general theory that deals with gravity; this was the second unified theory in the early 20s. Einstein was the first man to invent the term unified field theory in an attempt to prove the relationship between gravity and electromagnetism but failed in the ultimate goal. Einstein later tried to invent a unified theory (UT) to join electromagnetism and gravity.
After joining the electromagnetic, weak and strong forces, the resulting theory was referred to as the Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Beneath the edges of the rainbow lies the four forces and the resulting theory is referred to as the theory of everything (TOE). A unified theory of cognition was proposed by Allen Newell to speculate and explain the art of problem solving in all human beings. According to Johnson, science history is written in unified theories since they are very powerful notional parameters of scientific thought and each force has its own theory to explain how it functions. A theory of everything is closely linked to unified field theory but differs in attempt to elaborate all constants of physical nature and the failure of acquiring the basic nature to be fields.
The calamity of data streams has yielded significance in recent years as a result of hardware technology. This has made it easy to record and store various transactions in an automated way in everyday life. The major problem invented in data stream domain is clustering because of its detection and data summarization. Clustering problem refers to partitioning of specific data set into single or various categories of similar goals and a distant function is established by similarity notion. In the domain data stream, the clustering problem demands a procedure to constantly examine the dominant data clusters without being dominated by the earlier stream history. High dimensional case portrays a unique feature to clustering algorithms at the expense of traditional domain statistical setups due to sporadic of data in high dimensional set up. All sets of point tend to be at equidistant in high dimensional space resulting in unclear definition of distance-based clusters (Yang 64). Resent works of high dimensional data apply certain methods, such as projecting clusters to examine clusters of certain dimensional subset. The descriptive cluster in such methods is to specify each cluster in certain dimensional groups to deduce the scarcity calamity in high dimensional space. Despite a cluster not being fully defined in regard to high dimensions due to data scarcity, certain dimensional subset can often be deprived on certain subset points from significant and high quality clusters (Galloway and Sminoff 20). These dimensional subsets are referred to as projected clusters and might vary from one cluster to another.

A time series database involves a series of utility or matter acquired over continuous time measurements of equal time intervals, for instance it could be hourly, daily or weekly. The time series database is essential in various applications, such as budget analysis, stock market analysis, utility studies, sales and economic forecasting, inventory studies, observation of natural phenomena, workload projections, quality control, and yields projection among others. A time series is also a continuous database whereas sequence database constitutes of any ordered sequence of database with or without solid time notions, for instance, customer shopping transaction sequence and traversal web page sequence are data sequence but are not classified as time series data (Galloway and Sminoff 27).
A major type of complex knowledge can take place when mining data from numerous relations where objective of interest is dependent on each other and consists of several types of domains (Galloway and Sminoff 27). For instance;
Hyperlinks constitutes of graph structure (linked pages)
Text constitutes a structure list (word sequence is considered)
HTML constitutes a structural graph (pages linked)

Data mining rich in structural mining relations, social networks, interlinked web pages, and network metabolic in cells are required, but the major problem occurs in mining of non-relational data. In learning the concept of approximations, one is required to select a descriptive language since the selection may frontier the domain whereby a selected algorithm can be used. There are two basic types of objectives: structural and unstructured. Pairs of attribute values elaborate the unstructured object. For internal structural objects, fist order logic language is seldom used and attribute-value languages possess an expressive power of logic preposition. These languages at times fail to offer a full presentation of detailed structured items and relations among components. Whereas other database relations are restricted from discovery process, the background knowledge together with its induced patterns and examples can be applied because it can be portrayed as a method in a first order language.
Network data mining is the exploration of relationships and linked data patterns, for instance, the inter-relations between data substance at the weakest elemental point. Network data mining combines the discovery and the ability to spot patterns in human understanding with the help of computers to solid comprehension in a discovery surrounding to uphold the best interest of the two arenas. This human-centered technique provides a strong solution, however, to notice its full potential, the exploration phase has to be continuous at constant intervals to create room for new irregularities that emerge and identification of old pattern variations that are fed into the exception detection phase. The approach used in the data mining process to inquire for techniques might lead to unexpected results and that can transform the data analysis into an emerging path. Network data operates with many network slices to help in showing the various concepts of phenomena.
Multi Agent Data (MAD) mostly covers detailed applications that need supply solving technique. Data observed from distributing sources largely depends on the agent’s behavior and an individual application. Recording distributed in a normal environmental distribution is a non-trivial calamity since because of many restrictions, such as privacy sensitive data, limited bandwidth (e.g. wireless networks) among others. The sector of the Distributed Data Mining (DDM) covers the problem of surveying distributed data and supplies numerous algorithmic solutions. This is essential in delegating various data surveillance and mining operations under basic distribution supply, putting considerations into the constraints of the source. Multi-agent systems are also distributing channels, and MAD can be conjoined with DDM for an appealing intensive data applications.

Many researchers agree that biological mining data is a major threat for biomedical sciences and mining research. An illustration of research is how to relate HIV vaccine to data mining. Numerous detailed mining data exist in molecular biology, which is beyond control of algorithms mining standard. These challenges encircle chemical properties, DNA, functional properties, and 3D structures. As a result, environmental informatics and ecology ought to be considered by data mining researchers.
Significant discussions have been presented by researchers to improve the tools used in data mining. A key solution includes composition automation of data mining methodology construction in data mining system (Galloway and Sminoff 28). This would help the parties involved to shun from various data mining errors. If various data mining operations are automated, human labor would be greatly reduced. It is also important to align a structured data cleaning documentation. Another issue is combing interactive visuals and automatic data mining process, since visualization helps to explore more details about the data and refine its mining tasks. The theory growth behind solid database interaction is also essential (Scott 30).
Privacy protection in data mining has been considered an essential topic by various researchers (Scott 40). By doing so, they are certain that the user’s privacy is safe while mining their data. According to a certain respondent, unless the issue of privacy is solved, data mining will become a major problem to the public. Integrity knowledge evaluation of data collection, and integrity evaluation of an individual pattern are some of the challenges facing researchers in developmental measures. In addition to this, knowledge integrity assessment is affected by two major challenges. These challenges are;

Improve efficient to differentiate knowledge contents between two versions of data.
This problem requires growth of efficient algorithm and data structure to examine integrity knowledge of data collection.
Improve algorithms to approximate the impact of modified data.
This problem requires the growth of algorithm to record the impact of modification of data.
Data is never static and is on a constant change in different domains. As a result, it is of great importance that learned models be incorporated with time without creating biasness (Scott 53). Unbalanced cost sensitivity data is another related issue and challenge in research. Studies have shown that UCI datasets are tiny and poorly balanced. Without a forecast class target, there are 10 examples and 10 features in real world database (Scott 56).
In conclusion, it is important to note that since its early stages in the 1980s, data mining has yielded continuous success. Many problems have also emerged and solved by mining experts. However, timely exchange of significant discussions still needs to be discovered. This paper has discussed the major problems in data mining and is summarized in order of appearance as follows:

Goals of data mining.

Developing a unifying theory of data mining
Scaling up for high dimensional data and high speed data stream
Mining sequence data and time series data
Mining complex knowledge from complex data
Data mining in a network setting
Distributed data mining and mining multi-agent data.
Data mining for biological and environmental problems
Data mining process related problems
Security, privacy, and data integrity

Dealing with non-static, unbalanced, and cost-sensitive data.

It is important to note that data is never static and is on a constant change in different domains. As a result, it is of great importance that learned models be incorporated with time without creating biasness. Unbalanced cost sensitivity data is another related issue and a major challenge in research. Studies have shown that UCI datasets are tiny and poorly balanced. Significant discussions have been presented by researchers to improve the tools used in data mining. A key solution includes composition automation of data mining methodology construction in data mining system.

Work cited

Galloway, John and Sminoff Simon. (2007). Network data mining: methods and techniques for discovering deep linkage between attributes. Sydney: University of Technology Sydney, 2007. Print.
Gianella, Chris, Bhargawa Ruchita & Kargupta, Hillol. Multi-agent systems and distributed data mining. Lecture notes in computer science, 3191 (2004): 1-15.Web.
Scott, Jim, Social Network analysis: a handbook. London: Sage, 2000. Print.
Yang, Qiang. 10 Challenging problems in data mining research. International journal of information technology & decision making, 5.4 (2006): 587-597. Web.

Surname 9

Running head: DATA MINING Surname 1

Week 9

Two outcomes that offshore drilling would have on the global usage of non-renewable resources

Offshore drilling has been a major global practice despite the impacts it has on the environment and other resources. It is a practice along the shores of oceans which involves drilling of oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. Several governments inclusive of the US government have boosted their economies through the process. There are negative outcomes on non-renewable resources that have been witnessed as a result of offshore drilling. To begin with, it has resulted to water pollution. Water is a non-renewable resource that is prone to exhaustion if not used sparingly. Offshore drilling involves oil spillage that causes water pollution. This in turn affects the marine life such as the sea animals and plants (Gibson, 2013).

Offshore drilling if done exhaustively could lead to depletion of resources. Oil and natural gas are on the verge of depletion due to the continuous and serious drilling occurring on the shores (Gibson, 2013). The rate of energy consumption is very high. This is accredited to the increasing demand of energy globally. This has pushed for serious drilling to be done. For example, in the US, technological advancement has enhanced the rate at which offshore drilling occurs. The outcome of this is serious depletion of oil, natural gas and other mineral resources found under the ocean waters.

Evaluate the effectiveness of the US government in managing multiple environmental concerns e.g. food security and energy security

The US government has been very effective in ensuring that food security and energy security is achieved. Various measures have been put in place to ensure that both come to pass. Energy conservation and the use of alternative sources of energy are some of the measures that the US government has put in place to ensure energy security is achieved. On the other hand, food security has been achieved through establishment of consumer organizations that supply food products to the consumers, providing financial support to consumers to aid in agricultural production and offering training and education to the consumers on the importance of food conservation (Moseley & Logan, 2005).

References

Gibson, W (2013). “Offshore drilling: A current danger.” Sun Sentinel 17 Jun. 2009;

“Special Report: Inside the Loop Current.” St. Petersburg Times. Accessed 06 Dec. 2013;

Muller-Karger, Frank. Personal Interview

Moseley, W. & Logan, B. (2005). “Food Security.” In: Wisner, B., C. Toulmin and R.

Chitiga (eds). Toward a New Map of Africa. London: Earthscan Publications. Pp. 133–152