Australian trade and external economic policy

Introduction
International trading of Australia has transformed since the 1980s and 1990s due to relative stability. China is recorded as the largest export market accounting for almost a quarter of Australia’s exports. Conversely, India accounts for almost seven percent of the exports with other markets like Japan, Asia and Korea accounting for the rest. The external economic environment in currency exchange on the other hand has also changed with considerable interests being earned over fixed exchange rates. This has been attributed to European Monetary System (EMS) and unification (Ric 2009, p.5).

The Bretton Woods system is regarded as the most recent experiment in the world with regards to fixed exchange rates. After President Richard Nixon closed in August 1971, the de facto fixed exchange rate regime that it had evolved to ended. The Australian international trade has for a long period of time been influenced by international migration policies. This is due to the fact that Australia records more foreigners from various global countries (Fraser, McDonald & Mullineux 2012, p.451). The White Australia Policy in 1973 led to reduced immigrants especially from Europe. Consequently, migrant stocks continue to be European with Australia ranking its major trading partners being Asia. Subsidies for non-white immigration especially from Europe influenced Australia’s ethnic composition where distance, population and per capital income variables accounted for migrant flows. Authors including Gould (1994) assert that migrants encourage increased bilateral trade flows. The past three decades have recorded shifts in Australian immigrant stock which has encouraged trade flows thus, increased international trade relations (Boughton 2009, p.45).

According to Marc, an international currency is a medium of exchange, a store of value and/or a unit of account accounting for a certain share with regards to the official central bank reserves in foreign countries. It is therefore a share denominating international trade and financial markets. The Reserve Bank of Australia publishes quarterly economic forecasts annually. Australia records a Gross Domestic Production (GDP) of over 1.57 trillion dollars thus, ranking as one of the largest capitalist economy in the world. Currently, it is ranked as the nineteenth exporter and importer country in the world. Coupled with the fact that Australia has the largest national economy which includes mining, service and agricultural sectors as well as security exchanges, the international currency rate in Australia has been on the increase (Marc 2012, p.7).

A currency system in international trading is very important. This is mainly because, different countries maintaining a trading relationship translates to different and diverse languages as well currency values. As a result, International Monetary System has set rules and practices governing how nations with different national monies or currencies will transact business activities and honor their debts. Whenever the set international currency is functioning, trading countries benefit from a smooth flow of services, commodities and capital. However, when there is an imbalance like the financial crisis the one witnessed between 2007 and 2012, international trading nations are unable to maintain and sustain large and balanced international trading activities and investments. Such a breakdown in international currencies can be attributed to various factors including poor organization (Fraser, McDonald & Mullineux 2012, p.453).

The Bretton Woods System of monetary management was established in order to govern monetary relations among independent nations involved in international trade. Industrial nations in the twentieth century practiced international trade under this system’s rules in conducting financial and commercial activities. This system has been termed as having been stable though functioning for a short period of time as it only lasted for almost twenty nine years since it was established in 1944 until its official operations ended in 1973 (Michael 1993, p.11).

Bretton Woods System was established with a vision of formulating a monetary arrangement integrating classical gold standard or a stable exchange rate as well as an independent pursue of full national employment policies. Floating rates destabilizing and devaluing competitive exchange rates or defecting fixed exchange rates gold standard were highly avoidable under this system. This made possible by setting up an adjustable peg system among fixed parties that could only be changed under fundamental disequilibrium. It is through this system that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) which is part of the World Bank Group were formed. After the required of nations ratified the required agreement, these two organizations became operational in 1945. It required every nation involved in international trade to adopt the monetary policy aimed at maintaining an exchange rate tied to the United States Dollar and the IMF abilities to temporary bridge any imbalanced payments or breakdowns in the international currency. United States therefore served the main role of being asymmetric centre where it provided global liquidity, run balance of payment deficits and absorbed exports from the rest of the global nations (Vasnev, Skirtun & Pauwels 2013, p. 157).

The Bretton Woods System main goals and objectives can therefore be summarized as follows. It aimed at avoiding unstable exchange rates of the floating rate regime experienced in 1920s as it was impeding external adjustment and the Post World War I attempts to reconstruct international finance and trade. It sought to prevent a repeat of the ‘beggar thy neighbor’ policy. This is because; the policy was characterizing stages within interwar gold exchange standard whereby nations were operating under competitive currency devaluations in order to reduce trade deficits or improve their business surpluses and trade restrictions. The policy also attempted to reduce domestic the rate of unemployment through shifting these rates to other nations. The third objective of the Bretton Wood System was providing autonomy for national authorities in order to pursue domestic policies that were targeted to achieve full employment rates. It sought to achieve symmetric adjustments among nations experiencing balance of payment surpluses as well as deficits as the fourth objective (Boughton 2009, p.47).

The final objective was that it aimed at achieving symmetric positions among national currencies within the international financial regime. Thus, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) were formed in order promote these goals, collaborate on international monetary issues, facilitate maintenance of full employment, achievement of stable exchange rates, provision of multilateral payment systems and elimination of restrictions within the exchange rate system as well as providing financial aide to member countries with deficits on balance of payments as it would result to eased external disequilibria (Boughton 2009, p.47).

Under the Bretton Woods System, all member countries were mandated to a par value of their currencies in terms of either the United States dollar or gold. This was under the belief that market exchange rate of the currencies would be maintained within one percent of the declared par value as buying and selling of currencies among other nations within foreign exchange market would be intervened (Michael 1993, p.11).

The gold exchange standard is part of the fixed exchange rate regime. Some international trade countries still regard it as an ideal system as it takes central banks out of the business of exchange rate. They therefore regard it as a natural system with neither government control nor behavior. The International gold standard operated under the following six rules. Parity or a fixed gold price and gold would be converted freely among domestic money and gold at the same price. There were no restrictions with regard to export of gold by private citizens or capital among countries conducting international trade. Back national banknotes and coins with gold reserves and conditional long-run money had to encourage increase of gold reserves. With regards to short-run, liquidity crisis due to gold outflow had to prompt central bank into extending liquidity at increased interest rates. This rule was also referred to as the Bagehot’s rule. The fifth rule was based on the temporary suspension of the first rule. It sought to restore convertibility of feasible points at the old parity as soon as possible. The final rule allowed common worldwide price levels in being endogenously determined by world supply and demand of gold (Michael 1993, p.24).

Based on these rules, this standard had its advantages as well as disadvantages. Its main advantages included prevention of inflation although gold discovery inhibited such attempts and long-run production of price stability. More so, it lowered interest rates through adherence to the seal of approval. Conversely, its disadvantage included its inability to prevent fluctuations in price levels and the fact that it tied up all world money supplies into one commodity which was gold. Comparing Bretton Wood System and the gold exchange standard, at least five differences can be listed (Michael 1993, p.24).

In the Bretton Wood System, pegged exchange rates were adjustable as they were subject to existing fundamental disequilibrium. It also had better control on capital flows as an attempt to improve monetary policy credibility values thus, reducing domestic worries and concerns. It also led to creation of the International Monetary Fund as earlier stated. Bretton Wood System limited impositions on private holdings of gold thus, affirming the asymmetric position held by the United States which further enabled the country to act as a nominal anchor (Boughton 2009, p.47).
The End of Bretton Woods System
There were a number of reasons for the end of the Bretton Wood System including; the dollar shortage, global financial crisis and high inflation as well as interest rates.

The Dollar shortage
The United States was in custody of approximately sixty five percent of the world’s monetary gold inventory during the period that marked the completion of World War II. Thus the United States experienced a gold flood in the market which caused the devaluation of the dollar in 1934 and the capital break out from Europe. The gold and dollar reserves continuously funded the World War II expenditures and on termination of the war, these reserves had been exhausted. This depletion saw Europe experience great current account shortfalls. The value of the dollar was therefore worsened in 1946 when the main European Industrial Countries exaggerated the official uniformities. At the same time, the financing of the great shortfalls after the war as well as the exhaustion of the resources reserves led to the belief that the shortage of the dollar would be a permanent state. The reasons given for the shortage were cited as the insufficiency of raw materials, the fact that other countries would take a longer period to catch up with the United States rate of productivity, political insecurity, minimal savings and the absence of entrepreneurial spur. In response to these theories, several policies were proposed such as the support of private capital flows to Europe (Chen & Lai 2010, p.453).

There were three major challenges experienced by the Bretton Woods System which were clearly brought to light during the Bellagio Conference in 1964; the adjustment problem, liquidity and the confidence problem. With regards to liquidity problem, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) presented an initial report which affirmed the adequacy of the world reserves. This report further affirmed the adequacy of the reserves ratio to that of imports for the world and different country groups. However, the International Monetary Fund’s subsequent report stated that the reserve ratio to imports was adequate but only for the present time. They suggested that the reserve would fail to be sufficient in the foreseen decade of the 1960s which would be caused by the rebirth of convertibility and quick economic advancement hence advised on an increase in associate quotas. However, Triffin’s disagreed with the Fund report and brought out a few explanations supporting his thought of the inadequacy of the reserves. He argued that the reserves ratio to imports was extremely low. The argument cited that the rate should be higher than forty percent (Huh 1999, p.501).

Triffin’s argument on the deficiency of liquidity was also based on the scarce gold reserves; moreover, the cost of gold was gradually decreasing since the termination of the war and this would in turn diminish gold production in the world. The adjustment problem was resulted by unemployment. The wage rigidity caused a slow response towards the depreciation adjustments needed by a deficit country. Moreover, the adoption of short period capital control also contributed to the shutdown of automatic mechanism. Automatic adjustment was intended to occur through changing inflows and outflows in the open economy Keynesian model and others through the money supply reaction to changes in reserves. Complete adjustment was highly dependent on fiscal policy, income policy, trade controls as well as discretionary monetary policy. The Confidence Problem resulted through the portfolio transfers between the dollars and the gold. The pending dollar debts retained by the world monetary authorities shifted upwards with respect to the gold inventory held by the United States. As a result, it reduced the chance of any or all dollar holders to change their dollars into gold at a steady exchange rate (Huh 1999, p.503).

After Bretton Woods System ended, countries that would have continued with the efforts to fix some of the reasons leading to its collapse did not. As a result inflation and interest rates therefore increased especially in Europe. Thus, capital mobility, policy autonomy and pegged exchange rates should not be mixed into achieving floating exchange rates for major countries while maintain domestic policy autonomy and currency union (Rose 2007, p.671). The Mundell – Fleming model was applied in Australian trading system after the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. It influenced gender culture and gender subtext on the career trajectories of women in Australia as well as world interest rate, aggregate supply, IS, money supply and money demand shocks in the Mundell – Fleming model (Huh 1999, p.501).

Bretton Woods System commenced official operations in 1947 until 1973. However, active years can be only be accounted as between 1959 and 1968 during which it faced currency crisis, global liquidity, trade flow and capital restrictions mainly by United States. These restrictions were aimed at reducing balance of payment deficits among trading countries although they contributed to its end. Asymmetry tests conducted on member countries before and after the collapse of Bretton Wood System highlight the following suggestions; United States did not pay attention to external balance when setting interest rates, majority of participating countries that formed the periphery considered external factors when setting interest rates and lastly, they also did not take into account the setting of interest rates under the revived Bretton Woods System. Therefore, interest rates, exchange rates and international currencies during international trade should be flexible and adjustable towards economic changes and crisis. Flexible prices, rules, regulations, currencies, exchange and interest rates will guarantee a smooth international trade without economic or political conflicts (Schenk & Singleton 2011, p.120).

References
Barry, I 2006, Lecture Note on the Gold Standard, Lecture Note on the Gold Standard.
Boughton, J. M 2009, A New Bretton Woods? History Shows that Reforming the International Financial System Requires Leadership and Inclusiveness, Finance & Development, 46(1) 44(3).
Chen, C & Lai, C 2010, An Interpretation of the Collapsing Process of the Bretton Woods System, Open Economies Review, 21(3): 449-463.
Fraser, P., McDonald, G. A & Mullineux, A. W. 2012, Regional Monetary Policy: An Australian Perspective, Regional Studies.
Huh, H 1999, How well does the Mundell-Fleming Model Fit Australian Data since the Collapse of Bretton Woods? Applied Economics, 31(3):497-407.
Marc, A 2012, World Trade Organization: Use of Currencies in International Trade, Economic Research and Statistics Division Working Paper.
Michael, D 1993, The Gold Standard, Bretton Woods and Other Monetary Regimes: A Historical Appraisal, Economics Research at Rutgers University.
Ric, B 2009, Australia’s Foreign Trade and Investment Relationships, Annual Australian Parliamentary Conference.
Rose, A. K 2007, A Stable International Monetary System Emerges: Inflation Targeting is Bretton Woods, Reversed, Journal of International Money and Finance, 26(5):663-681.
Schenk, C & Singleton, J 2011, Basket Pegs and Exchange Rate Regime Change: Australia and New Zealand in the Mid- Seventies, Australian Economic History Review, July, 51(2): 120.
Vasnev, A., Skirtun, M & Pauwels, L 2013, Forecasting Monetary Policy Decisions in Australia: A Forecast Combinations Approach, Journal of Forecasting, 32(2):151-166.

9

 

The History of Charles Ormond Eames

Charles Ormond Eames, Jr is one of the few designers of particular and paramount illustrations of the designers of great furniture in the twentieth century, who worked closely with his wife Bernice Alexandra Ray Eames. He had his lifespan between 1907 and 1978 while Ray Eames existed between 1912 and 1988. Their joint design processes gave an imperative shape to America’s twentieth century economic development. Their existence and work signified the country’s important engagements counting the West Coast’s coming-of-age, the change in the country’s economy from manufacture of goods to generation of information, and the worldwide development of American philosophy.

The family of the Eameses incorporated the period’s idealistic impression of contemporary design as an instrument of communal transformation, inspiring it to a nationwide schema (McCoy 24). Their advancement from furniture artistes to cultural diplomats validated their unlimited abilities and the overlay of their welfares compared to the general welfares of their nation. In an infrequent period of shared goals, the Eameses affiliated with the federal administration government and the nation’s top trades to tip the responsibility to revolutionize post-battle United States of America.

Charles Eames matured in the United States of America’s industrial heartland, after his birth in the independent state of Saint Louis, America. In his youthful lifetime, he worked as a youth for engineers and industrialists. However, he did this forestalling his enduring interest in technicalities and the multifaceted functioning of stuffs (Eames et al. 34). Ray Bernice Kaiser, natively born in Sacramento, California, established her captivation with the intellectual potentials of normal objects prematurely. She expended her determinative years in the trajectory of New York’s contemporary art activities and contributed to the very primary fact of the wave of American-born intellectual performers.

Charles and Ray also continued their investigations with prepared plywood, and which got initiated through Charles’ Cranbrook’s partnership with Saarinen. Considering the artistic usage of this engineering material, the Eameses required robust, lithe merchandise able to take on innumerable figures and forms. Availability of soldierly expertise and resources delivered the concluding phase in the Eames’ fruitful effort for the creation of steady precast plywood produces. The subsequent support was both exceedingly useful and sculptural, and proposes the liquefied, biomorphic methods that described many of their subsequent furniture projects (Kirkham 87).

Immediately the resolution of the scientific process for decorating plywood was fashioned, Charles Eames and Ray Eames employed the use of the technique to the scheme of home furniture. Subsequently, when a comprehensive program of building prototypes and challenging, the first product was a simple plywood chair with both the seat and back supports gently curved so as to ergonomically and comfortably accommodate the human body.

The family of Eameses engaged standard manufacturing industry gets resources wherever possible, with respect to the protracted scarcities of numerous construction resources. The inner alignment of the household, with its costly, dual-height lounge and stretchy plan also reflects a lot today. However, substituted antiquated, steady room preparations, and reproduced the way the Eames domestic household lived (Kirkham, & Charles 51).

In conclusion, Charles Eames and Ray Eames have greatly accounted for graphic design in the United States of America. In addition, architecture, and equipment and product design, the family of Eameses also fashioned groundbreaking and revolutionary movies. Several of these shaped as corporate transportations plans, like their frequent movies for IBM.

Works Cited
Eames, Charles et al. The work of Charles and Ray Eames: a legacy of invention. New York: Library of Congress, 2005. Print.
Fehlbaum, Rolf, Eames Demetrios, and Vitra Design Museum. The furniture of Charles and Ray Eames. Weil am Rhein: Amalgamated Book Services, Print.
Kirkham, Pat, & Charles O. Eames. Charles and Ray Eanes: designers of the twentieth century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. Print.
Kirkham, Pat. “Humanizing Modernism: The Crafts, Functioning Decoration and the Eameses.” Journal of Design History, 11 (1998): 15-29.
McCoy, Esther. “Charles and Ray Eames.” Design Quarterly, 98 (1975): 20-29.

Surname 1

 

Holland Co Industrial Hygiene Program

 

Abstract

Introduction
The International Labour Organization (ILO) released findings in 2012 estimating that work related accidents in places of employment often costs up to 10 % of the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in America alone. The figures thus vary in various countries across the globe, as the European Union experiences only 3.8 % of the costs. The organization also gave an estimate that 2% to 6% of the cancers reported cases are often work related and that about 20,000 deaths which have occurred as a result of cancer and 40,000 other new cases that occur in the United States and across the world are attributed to occupational health and hygiene. This implies that proper hygiene at the work place environment serves to benefit both workers and the stakeholders in the industry alike.

This is because it promotes; levels of improved worker health that eventually increases the life expectancy, the reduction rate of job turnovers due to injuries incurred, lowered social and healthcare costs hence maximizes the potential of company employees and finally proper hygiene at the work place promotes processes that are efficient, designed with technological advancement and rates of the increased productivity (Clayton, 2009). This paper seeks to analyze and outline the industrial hygiene program of the Holland Co.

Company /industry profile
Holland Co is a chemical plant that produces rubber accelerators, petroleum antioxidants and antiozonates and other pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. This plant was established before 1970, and is located in a relatively clean area. It is devoted to the need of endeavoring to set up the correct industrial protocols & guidelines for a robust, safe and helpful operation. It has through the years generated and supplied a mixture of specialized chemicals utilized as a part of polymer manufacturing, tires, modern elastic merchandise, paint, and numerous other industrial provisions. As one of the leading suppliers of chemicals to the rubber industry, Holland Co’s mission is to provide timely and quality services for its full range of products.  The company provides quality products at equally competitive and affordable prices to the global markets.  This far, Holland Co takes pride in its ability to maintain large inventories and a continuous pipeline for its products to serve its customers.

Program’s highlights
Purpose
This industrial hygiene program outlines the industrial hygiene (IH) requirements by the Holland law, policies and regulations, and professional practice. Its aim is to provide the proper guidance that will help in implementing the most essential elements of the Holland Co Industrial Hygiene Program (IHP) through giving clear definitions of the roles to be played by the industrial hygienist in the industry’s programs.

Goals and objectives
The goals and objectives of this Industrial Hygiene Program are:
To ensure that there is a proper regulatory compliance in place with applicable laws of the state pertaining to occupational health (OH).
To accurately recognize, portray, and survey potential work environment health risks.
To recommend proper designing and regulatory controls or personal Protective equipment (PPE) to anticipate work related sicknesses, damages, or deaths to Holland Co workers.
To recommend faculty for introduction based restorative observation.
To integrate the established Industrial Health standards, ideas, and capacities in backing of the identified systems, for example security, work related medication, bio surety, substance surety, listening to, vision preservation and preparation, respiratory insurance, Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), asbestos control, lead reduction, and ecological consistence.

Policy statement
Holland Co has a vital interest in providing each employee with a safe and healthy place to work. We also have an obligation to act responsibly toward the communities in which we do business. Our target is to manufacture products, give administrative services to clients, and to conduct our business in the most secure conceivable way and to guarantee open security in conjunction with our operations and offices. To fulfil this target, the plant is dedicated to agreeing to appropriate health and security prerequisites and training our workers, to guarantee them with effective comprehension of this vital initiative on industrial hygiene. All supervisors and bosses bear the direct accountability and responsibility regarding the well-being of every worker under their departments and a guarantee to disposing of potential hazards. Every representative of the company ought to demonstrate concern for their individual well-being and that of individual workers under their supervision. In addition to health and safety considerations within our facilities, Holland Co recognizes the right of all citizens to live in an environment as free of industrial pollution as feasible.

In this regard, it is Holland Co’s intent that its operations are in compliance with federal, state and local environmental regulations, with an emphasis on reducing or preventing pollution at the source. Further, to assure awareness of our environmental obligations, Holland Co is committed to providing appropriate training to our employees on applicable regulatory requirements. It is the belief of Holland Co that employees with adequate knowledge of environmental matters are best able to achieve improvements in environmental performance, which enhances the quality of our facilities and surrounding communities. Maintaining the health and safety of our employees and eliminating environmental risks to the community provides substantial benefits to everyone associated with Holland Co. Health, safety and protection of the environment will always be primary goals of the company.

Scope
The protocol highlights the corporation’s practice standards in terms of human and environmental safety against potentially hazardous operations. The main focus group consists of the employee at the Holland Co Plant due to their exposure risk that is apparently greater than that of the other interest groups, who are also targeted by the program.

The actual program
Definitions, acronyms
Industrial HygieneThe American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) characterizes Industrial Hygiene as both the art and science that deals with anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling various factors within the work place environment which might cause disorder, debilitated health and affect the well being of employees or to the residents around the chemical plant.Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH)An expert industrial hygienist who by training, background, and show of learning has fulfilled the prerequisites of the American Board of Industrial Hygiene and has been designated a Certificate in industrial Hygiene in either the extensive practice or various aspects of work profession or calling.Exposure AssessmentDetermination or estimation (qualitative or quantitative) of the extent, recurrence, span, and track of exposureQualified Industrial Hygienist (QIH)People by prudence of satisfactory experience, preparing, instruction, board certificate or a mixture of these components are equipped to give mechanical hygiene identified administrations.
HazardAny practice, conduct, condition, or synthesis that can cause harm or ailment in individuals or harm to property.
Program’s team
Role DesignationJob DescriptionCertified Industrial Hygienist (CIH)
Aid in the improvement of the IH program.

• Approve the system as gathering for the most part acknowledged IH norms of practice.

• Provide progressing general IH oversight of the system.

• Conduct twelve-month program surveys of the system.

• Review observing documentation.

• Verify staff leading following are legitimately qualified to perform the exercises doled out.

• Verify the nature of introduction assessments and screening is satisfactory.

• Provide suggestions dependent upon evaluations.

• Develop twelve-month evaluation plansQualified Industrial Hygienist (QIH)
• Works under the direction of a CIH

– Conduct qualitative or quantitative introduction appraisals

– Assists in advancing appropriate Holland Co programs/procedures

– Verify work force leading screenings are legitimately qualified to perform the exercises relegated.

– Provide suggestions dependent upon appraisals.

– Develop twelve-month introduction assessment arrangement plansSite Supervisors
• Understand the potential health dangers of the work being carried out and in the zones met expectations.

• Evaluate these potential health dangers as a feature of a pre-job security survey.

• Ensure labourers are savvy to the potential dangers and the controls set up to minimize potential exposures.

• Request support from security or IH staff as required in assessing conditionsSite Safety Personnel • Maintain an essential level of IH peril cognizance.

• Evaluate employments for potential health perils using earlier preparing, PPE evaluations, and exposure assessments.

• Request support from an IH as required for assessments or following.

• Ensure controls required to minimize exposures remain activeSite Monitoring Technician (or IH Technician)
• Maintain IH supplies,

• Calibrate supplies for every guidelines

• Maintain satisfactory documentation

• Collect tests and handle a short time later utilizing sanction techniques

• Other exercises as requestedEmployees
Understand the potential health risks of the materials being worked with or around.

• Utilize legitimate PPE unwavering with Hazard Communication and PPE preparing.

• Report any issues or concerns to the supervisors
The Medical Doctor/Expert of the Plant
This will be in charge of giving all the workers who deal with dangerous chemicals a chance to undergo the appropriate restorative checkups, incorporating any physical examinations which the inspecting he/she figures out to be fundamental, for the following circumstances:
Whenever a worker advances signs or manifestations connected with a dangerous compound, the worker is given a chance to get a suitable medical examination. The worker should contact the Chemical Hygiene Officer to start the examination process.
Where introduction checking reveals the need for subsequent checkups for employees with high Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) with a Holland Co controlled substance that requires screening and medical observation. Medical surveillance need be made for the affected worker as recommended by the specific Holland Co Standard.

Whenever a risk event happens in the work place, for example a spill, blast or other event increasing the probability of a dangerous synthetic introduction, the effected employee(s) is furnished a chance for a medical examination.
Employee involvement
Adequate security and health programs include workers who have a stake in the company’s prosperity. One of the most ideal approaches to include employees is through a wellbeing board: a gathering of workers – speaking on behalf of the management – that is answerable for advertising work environment security and health. Employees can volunteer to be part of the panel or their associates can choose them. The following are examples of practises that involve employees at Holland Co Industrial hygiene:
• Promotion of the program for employees to get the essence of the management’s commitment to their safety and health within the work environment.
• Employees take part in the process of reviewing and evaluating the industrial hygiene programs occasionally.
• Employees being taken through the safety education and health measures training to equip themselves with relevant skills to be able to identify hazards and risks. This helps them to possibly make the appropriate suggestions on how to either eliminate or control them.
• Employees often volunteer or are selected to participate in the plant’s safety committee.
Budget

Under the expense profit contemplations at Holland Co, a complete program prone to exceed the antagonistically influenced open picture on the dedication of the partnership’s status should come into operation at a sensible expense. In perspective of the fiscal and goodwill harm that the fight saw in various ecological standoffs that Holland Co got included into after, each accessible asset should take on the hero’s role of the manageability of natural cognizant practices. As far as the different creation needs for the recognizable proof of unsafe conditions at each generation capacity for the Holland Co needed to give the accompanying least plan under the interesting operation requests.

Plan for the Industrial Hygiene Program for Holland Co
Projected budget for the preparation of the Hygiene Protocol
Revenue $ $ $
Allocated funds 8,000,000
Expenditure
i) Team allowance- Hygiene Experts 900,000
Medical Experts 300,000
Management representatives 250,000
Employee representatives 150,000
Training 500,000 2,700,000
ii) Equipment- airborne sampling 400,000
Surface sampling 300,000
Thermal sampling 550,000
Monitoring and Evaluation 300,000
Protective clothing 220,000 2,570,000 (3,200,000)
Program Reserve Allowance 800,000

Purchasing and equipment

Purchasing and equipment has to go with the required standards in industrial hygiene and safety maintenance. Holland Co has to adopt a model that will ensure the equipment and materials purchased meet those required standards. The purchasing department is charged with the mandate of ensuring that only the materials and equipment approved by the industrial safety, environmental or hygiene organizations are approved. Industrial hygiene monitoring equipment has to be serviced, calibrated, and maintained according to the recommendations made by the manufacturer. The equipment used has to be sent for factory calibration and service at a frequency set by the manufacturer. A subset of equipment can be calibrated on site by the industrial technician or hygienist before and after every use, for instance, the air sampling pumps.

The unit or the equipment is marked with a label or a sticker that indicates the most current calibration date, and when the calibration is to be done again. The industrial hygiene staff does not have to mark the unit before and after the use of the equipment. Equipment that is inaccurate, past-due or broken is tagged out of service until recalibration or repair. The tag offers the person’s name, the date, the reason the equipment was taken for service, and the proposed disposition of the equipment. The industrial hygiene equipment should be stored away from dust, contaminants, and light. It is important to note that when equipment utilized for quality control or measurements is subject to change, it has to be calibrated periodically. Calibration is done based on measurements from a certified source.

Hazard control ventilation systems are usually relied upon as the primary engineering control in maintenance activities, laboratory operations, and industrial operations. Local exhaust ventilation points and hoods for operations must be utilized to make sure that there is enough reduction of airborne levels of contaminants that could pose a significant risk to the personnel. Local exhaust points entail extractor arms, biological safety cabinets, glove boxes, chemical fume hoods, and other exhausted equipment units that perform a health or a safety function.

During the installation of the hazard control ventilation systems, the industrial hygiene program manager has to be consulted to ensure proper choice and installation. The criteria for ventilation performance are defined by industrial hygiene program manager based on the nationally acknowledged standards of performance. Personal safety is paramount and thus, proper personal protective equipment (PPE) must be purchased. PPE puts the burden of hazard control and management directly on the shoulders of the worker. However, the use of the equipment is limited to situations such as escape of emergency situations or period necessary to evaluate, repair, or install engineering controls (National Nuclear Security Administration 119).

Training
Training and education concerning particular environmental and occupational hazards is an important feature of health and safety programs. Offering information about adverse impacts of potential exposures relayed in a user-friendly way has numerous benefits. These benefits include raising awareness of individuals outside the workplace, and empowering of workers. Health educators define the various steps individuals utilize to recognize a particular hazard, assess how they can minimize the hazard, and then decide to take action. It is worth noting that different activities require different approaches.

Effective education and training often needs an understanding of the general principles of risk communication. The Environmental Protection Agency and other organizations and agencies have created materials on risk communication that are beneficial for health and safety professionals or experts who communicate with community members or the workers about environmental and occupational hazards. An understanding of how individuals perceive risk is crucial. Individuals distinguish between risks they recognize they control and the risks controlled by their colleagues. Offering individuals with information that reinstates some control to them is a crucial element of education and training. Community members and workers should be offered with full information concerning hazards to which they can be exposed to and the means of decreasing the risk. Majority of the safety measures rely on changed behavior, which necessitates training or education.

Individuals not aware of the hazards will not safety and health precautions essential to protect themselves and others. Offering safety and hazard training is not supposed to replace other methods of hazard control such as implementing pollution prevention measures or installing needed workplace equipment. Effective training that is based on life experiences and empowering individuals to address and elucidate issues is a cornerstone for safety and health programs.

Workplace hazard anticipation
Rationale and grounds
Modern industrial hygienists distinguish that work practice and regulatory controls are the essential method of lessening employee exposure to work related dangers. Designing controls minimize worker exposure by either decreasing or uprooting the peril at the source or disengaging the specialist from the dangers. Designing controls incorporate disposing of dangerous chemicals and displacing destructive lethal materials with less perilous ones, encasing work forms or restricting work operations, and instituting general and nearby ventilation frameworks.

Air Contaminants These are generally characterized as either particulate or gas and vapour contaminants. The most well-known particulate contaminants incorporate tidies, vapour, fogs, pressurized canned products, and fibbers. Cleans are strong particles that are shaped or created from robust natural or inorganic materials by decreasing their size through mechanical methodologies, for example pounding, grinding, penetrating, scraping or impacting. Exhaust are structured when material from a volatilized robust consolidates in cool air. Much of the time, the robust particles coming about because of the build-up respond with air to structure an oxide. The term fog is connected to a finely separated fluid suspended in the environment. Fogs are produced by fluids consolidating from a vapour over to a fluid or by separating a fluid into a scattered state, for example by sprinkling, frothing or atomizing. Mist concentrates are additionally a type of a fog described by exceptionally respirable, minute fluid particles.

Chemical Hazards Harmful substance mixes as solids, fluids, gases, fogs, tidies, exhaust, and vapors push poisonous impacts by inward breath (breathing), ingestion (through immediate contact with the skin), or ingestion (consuming or drinking). Airborne compound risks exist as centralizations of fogs, vapors, gases, exhaust, or solids. Some are dangerous through inward breath and some of them aggravate the skin on contact; some could be poisonous by osmosis through the skin or through ingestion, and some are destructive to living tissue. The level of laborer hazard from exposure to any given substance relies on upon the nature and intensity of the harmful impacts and the size and span of introduction. Data on the danger to laborers from substance risks might be acquired from the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) that OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard requires to be supplied by the maker or shipper to the buyer of all perilous materials. The MSDS is a rundown of the significant health, wellbeing, and toxicological data on the synthetic or the mixture’s fixings. Different procurements of the Hazard Communication Standard require that all holders of unsafe substances in the working environment have suitable cautioning and Id names.

Biological Hazards These incorporate microorganisms, infections, parasites, and other living organic entities that can cause intense and ceaseless contaminations by entering the figure either specifically or through breaks in the skin. Occupations that manage plants or creatures or their items or with nourishment and sustenance transforming may lay open laborers to biotic perils. Research center and medicinal faculty additionally might be presented to natural risks. Any occupations that bring about contact with natural liquids represent a danger to specialists from living perils. In occupations where creatures are included, organic risks are managed by avoiding and regulating ailments in the creature populace and additionally fitting consideration and taking care of contaminated creatures. Additionally, successful individual hygiene, especially legitimate consideration regarding minor cuts and scratches, particularly those on the hands and lower arms, encourages keep specialist dangers to a base. In occupations where there is potential exposure to biotic risks, laborers may as well practice legitimate particular hygiene, especially hand washing. Clinics might as well furnish legitimate ventilation, fitting particular defensive supplies, for example gloves and respirators, satisfactory irresistible waste transfer frameworks, and proper controls incorporating seclusion in occasions of especially infectious maladies, for example tuberculosis.

Physical Hazards These incorporate over the top levels of ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation, clamor, vibration, brightening, and temperature. In occupations where there is introduction to ionizing radiation, time, separation, and protecting are vital apparatuses in guaranteeing employees’ wellbeing. Separation is an appropriate approach towards regulating introduction to both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Radiation levels from a few sources might be assessed by analyzing the squares of the separations between the laborer and the source. Protecting additionally is an approach to ensure against radiation.

Non-ionizing radiation additionally is managed by protecting laborers from the source. Now and again constraining introduction times to non-ionizing radiation or expanding the separation is not adequate. Laser radiation, for instance, can’t be regulated adequately by encroaching time limits. OSHA requires that laborers in uproarious surroundings be occasionally tried as a safety measure against listening to misfortune. An alternate physical risk, brilliant hotness exposure in manufacturing plants, for example steel factories, might be regulated by instating reflective shields and by furnishing defensive apparel.

Workplace hazard recognition
Approach and strategies
Through a successful hazard recognition program, Holland Co employees will be able to ensure: the minimization of the cases and severity of physical accidents, risks and injuries reported in the work place, have a clear comprehension of the role of personal risk behaviors play in curbing accidents, make distinctions between personal responsibility and that of the company in managing risks and hazards and take responsibility for their own safety. Holland Co puts into consideration the following factors while recognizing hazards: The employees or people through training and facilitating communication activities, equipment, materials, environment and work related processes.

Workplace hazard evaluation
Another program has been started at Holland Co to figure out if perils are regulated to adequate levels of danger. This is the Work place Hazards Evaluation program. It will be executed for all ranges of the grounds that include critical potential dangers to scholars, staff, and builders. Previously, routine Holland Co dangers assessments, as in most different places of work, have centered primarily on physical investigations. Holland Co staff might stroll through labs, shops, and different ranges searching for unmistakable dangers. Physical reviews basically keep tabs on things, as opposed to work exercises. Reports have a tendency to focus on things that are well known and effortlessly distinguished.

The fact is that most accidents in the work place environments are caused by employees’ activities. Less often will a container of synthetic presents a danger; rather it is the way chemicals are utilized that results into the accident. Since the principle wellspring of danger is the movement, it makes sense that we should figure out what those activities are that generate the danger. Besides, since it is the individuals who are answerable for leading the movement, it is essential that we converse with these individuals to recognize what are the hazardous operations. The above thinking structures the premise of the Workplace Hazard Evaluation Program. Essentially, the procedure includes Holland Co faculty working with staff and learners in an offered range to recognize essential exercises that could process hazard. Information are collected on every unsafe action with the goal that we might confirm whether the existing controls are satisfactory to control hazard to a worthy level.

The discoveries are entered into a table that has line sections for every movement, the risky operators, uncommon conditions and other important elements, what controls are at present being utilized, and what upgrades are required. Such assessments take essentially more drawn out to perform than physical examinations; then again, the information aggregated is extremely significant for danger assessment. Additionally, anticipated reviews might be directed a great deal all the more rapidly, since we have recently handled an information base of a large portion of the data. This information might be utilized for various purposes including; clear records on how the plant is assessing and supervising hazard, frameworks to be followed in the process of supervising advancement on required enhancements in wellbeing controls and finally prepared apparatus for administrators to use to lead work particular security direction to their individuals. In synopsis, the Workplace Hazards Evaluation will empower danger assessments to address in part what exercises produce what hazard, and what particular control measures are required. The item will be a database of danger data that could be utilized for various purposes, incorporating peril preparing.

Methods and tools
Qualitative industrial hygiene assessment involves the evaluation of potential individual exposure to work environment chemicals, physical, radiological, or organic executors dependent upon particular experience and proficient judgment. This includes; assessing and supervising work related exposures to substance, physical, radiological, and natural operators, using a deliberate, repeatable evaluation approach including proficient workers, making best utilization of assets (individuals, time, having goals to target regions or assignments of more amazing hazard for preparing, arranging, & planning, helping to advance the IH checking plans and satisfying the desire of the Annual Comprehensive Evaluation process. Quantitative IH Assessment on the contrary involves the evaluation of real working environments that are specific and may expose employees to substance, physical, radiological, or biotic operators utilizing licensed numerical and scientific examination.
Workplace hazard control options
All the possible options





The most ideal approach to control a danger is to dispose of it and evacuate the threat. This might be carried out by changing a work handle in a manner that will dispose of a peril; substituting anon-lethal concoction for a dangerous substance; having labourers perform assignments at ground level instead of working at statures; and different systems that evacuate the risk all together. The most ideal approach to manage a risk is to kill it. This might be carried out by suspending a procedure, robotizing a methodology, or furnishing an apparatus or unit that uproots the worker from the danger zone (Hanford Mission Support Contract, 2013).

Reducing the Hazard
If you can’t totally eliminate a danger, make a transform that decreases the danger to an adequate level. Assuming that a substance is included, uncovering a less perilous, however just as successful compound is attractive. (McDonald, 2010). The second most ideal approach to control a peril is to substitute something else in its place that might be non-unsafe or less perilous to specialists. For instance, a non-lethal (or less poisonous) compound could be substituted for an unsafe one. In the event that a risk can’t be disposed of or a more secure substitute can’t be discovered, the following best approach is to utilize designing controls to keep the danger from arriving at the labourer. This could incorporate systems, for example utilizing commotion hosing engineering to lessen clamour levels; encasing a compound prepare in a Plexiglas “glove box”; utilizing mechanical lifting apparatuses; or utilizing neighbourhood debilitate ventilation that catches and diverts the contaminants before they can get in the breathing zone of specialists. Furnishing a designing control secludes, ventilates, holds, or generally controls the risk through some physical methods. Placing a gatekeeper on a dangerous moving

Part is a sample. The danger remains, yet the labourers are secured from the

Purpose of operation. The explanation for why this is less adequate than danger disposal or peril control is on the grounds that it is conceivable to uproot a designing control or close off the method of control, hence uncovering representatives. Provided that building controls can’t be executed, or can’t be actualized immediately, managerial controls ought to be acknowledged. Managerial controls include changes in working environment approaches and strategies. They can incorporate such things as: having the warning alarms on, making an initiative to label all the systems, reducing the exposure time those workers may be having on hazards and providing the relevant training. For instance, employees could undergo work rotation in various places within the plant on a daily basis. Also, having the back-up alarms operational reflects an effective way of warning systems. The utilization of PPE is a method for regulating perils by putting defensive gear straightforwardly on specialists’ forms. Illustrations of particular defensive gear incorporate: respirators, gloves, defensive dress, hard caps, goggles, and ear plugs.

Options’ strengths and weaknesses
Personal protective equipment is the least effective is the slightest viable system for ensuring labourers from perils. PPPE ought to be utilized just while other more viable controls are continuously improved or instated, or if there are no other more adequate approaches to control the danger (Work Place Safety and Insurance Board, 2011). This is in light of the fact that; the risk is not dispensed with or changed, the supplies is lacking or fizzles, the labourer is not secured, there is no particular defensive gear is numb-skull confirmation, individual defensive supplies is frequently uncomfortable and can put an extra physical trouble on a specialist and at long last individual defensive supplies can really make perils. While there are a few employments, for example uprooting asbestos, where wearing sufficient particular defensive supplies is totally crucial, there are numerous occupations where bosses pass out individual defensive gear when indeed they ought to be utilizing more successful risk control strategies. (McDonald, 2010).

Time –table (for all program)
Activity/TimeJan FebMarchAprilMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecSelection of the program implementation teamListing of potential hazardsIndustrial hygiene assessments for each health hazard Risk evaluation Training and meetings plus monitoring of the program will happen continuously 
Access records
In the event that an employee or a representative demands access to records, the manager might as well guarantee that the right to gain entrance is offered in a sensible spot, way, and time. In the event that the executive can’t offer the right to gain entrance to the records in a sensible time, the business might inside a certain period, advise the designated agent or the worker requesting the record of the purpose behind postponement and conceivable date when the record will be made accessible. It is significant for the streamlined hygiene director to distinguish and consent to the Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records” regulation. This will guarantee that he comprehends all the parts of the project as to enter to records.

Employee notification
The personnel in charge of industrial hygiene must confirm the employee warning necessities for the substance tests. The representatives must be told inside a time of 15 working days of getting the last exposure report. Be that as it may, more strict time cutoff points are required for a few substances controlled or regulated under prerequisite. The point when individual following come about is a delegate of the different specialists or workers exposures, the different representatives might be advised through singular warning or postings. The distinct notices or the postings shouldn’t record the particular data or the name of the specialist being observed.

Program implementation
The usage of the project requires that the IHPM (Industrial Hygiene Program Manager) advance an IHIP. The IHIP plans all the IH exercises for a time of one year. The IHIP is a living report and the IHPM uses it to control the orderly achievement of the prioritized IH exercises. The project might as well incorporate; a rundown of potential dangerous operations, the vicinity of health risks at every operation, streamlined hygiene appraisals vital for every health danger, worksites anticipated assessment, finished assessments, the measure of time needed to complete every assessment, chances assessments codes given to the operation and the comments section. The system will be actualized inside a time of one year dependent upon the given segments. Every segment is imperative in the execution of the project (Work Place Safety and Insurance Board, 2011).

Records keeping
An integral and essential part of any good occupational health and industrial hygiene program is the administrative effort that supports and documents the work done by the hygienist. Often this is not perceived as one of the interesting or challenging aspects of health and safety, but it is very necessary to maintain an effective program. The administrative activities include financial support for conducting the programs and suitable and useful records and reports, including program audits. Industrial hygienists collect, maintain, and use data for recognizing, evaluating, and controlling health hazards. Evaluation of exposure data for trends can be a useful tool for anticipating potential problems.

Hygiene records include, but are not limited to, assessment of hazards, exposure measurements, development and maintenance of controls, training and education, and auditing. The industrial hygienist will need information to document which employee has worked at which job for what time period, including job descriptions from an exposure viewpoint and representative exposure data for the jobs. Record keeping in itself serves no useful purpose unless certain objectives have been defined and the records are translated into some form of report. The industrial hygienist must present data in a report format that is readily understandable, and in sufficient detail to permit the user to make adequate decisions. The report should reflect the special expertise of the industrial hygienist to interrelate all facets of the worker and the worker’s environment in evaluating the potential impact on the worker’s health. Effective reports can assist in future budget preparation and justification.

One key report is an audit. A thorough audit is crucial to maintaining a strong program. The main purpose of an audit report is to keep senior management up to date on both the strengths and the opportunities for improvement. The industrial hygiene audit can stand alone or be integrated with safety and environmental audits. Contains standards and practices documents created in the development of industrial hygiene standards and practices to protect health and safety of workers, including developmental and production operations; the location design, layout, equipment, and construction of facilities and other areas requiring industrial hygiene standards. Includes recommendations, coordination actions, studies and other actions taken to establish standards. Also includes employee exposure reports, asbestos and medical monitoring and surveillance records. Maintain appropriate storage, handling and access control of OUO documents that relate to personal exposure, including employee exposure monitoring assessments notification data packages received from IH personnel (Drown, 2013).

Program audit and evaluation
The expanded usage of modern hygiene programs in industry, with the cohorted build in stores assigned to security and health programs, has presented the thought of evaluative measures for system execution. The review is an oftentimes utilized and important device for the security expert, yet it has been occasionally utilized by the hygienist. We separate the review from 1) system guidelines and 2) project assessment. The last intimates identifying program exercises to enunciated measures of adequacy. The review, conversely, uses broadly acknowledged modern hygiene program structural components. In a review a qualitative or numerical rating scale is appointed every review program component to show the degree to which the component is available. The review is a key instrument for the chief of a modern hygiene program. Reviews are not a subs

titute for system assessment, yet program assessment is an exceptionally indeterminate matter since the streamlined hygiene calling has yet to concentrate on measures of project advancement in wording comparable to those of the security field, i.e. mischance frequencies and severities. Program components and qualitative and quantitative rating scales are portrayed. Planning, direct and reporting of the review are talked over. The Act and regulations set out least necessities reflecting acknowledged industry practices. On the other hand, each working environment is distinctive and the most ideal approach to forestall mishaps might contrast starting with one working environment then onto the next. That is the reason the health and security program needs to be working environment particular. A system created for one work environment may not help an alternate.

To be viable, a work related health and wellbeing program needs the dynamic backing and duty of senior administration to guarantee the project is done with no special cases. Doing the employment securely must be as imperative as finishing it proficiently and successfully. The word related health and security program needs specialist inclusion. It must be produced in conference with your word related health council. Every living soul must be considered responsible for completing his or her obligations regarding making the health and wellbeing program succeed. Senior administration must be responsible for improving and actualizing the system. Distinct managers and workers ought to be trained regarding doing particular components of the project. Health and wellbeing may as well then be evaluated on the same support as any possible imperative part of the occupation.

Recommendation for improvement
It is highly recommended that the plant management;
Works towards the minimization of all the possible exposures to chemicals and risks as only a few laboratory chemicals do not causes accidents hence there is need to generally adopt precautions for handling all laboratory chemicals.
The laboratory personnel must carry out their jobs in conditions that have reduced risk exposures from hazards that may not have known substances. This implies that before employees commence any laboratory work, the hazards and various risks associated with the experiments or processes must be determined.
Another recommendation is that the management of the plant should conduct risk assessments for hazardous chemicals and procedures before working. The progressive system of controls prioritizes intercession systems that depend on the fact that; the most ideal approach to control a hazard is to methodically evacuate it from the working environment, instead of depending on workers to reduce their operations.

Follow-Up
Indeed, the best project plans own confinements and dangers should dependably extend throughout the term of the operations of the plant. Steady program execution checking and catch up must consequently structure part of the interior control guidelines at Holland Co. The interior review reports must be used by the administration at Holland Co office to supplement catch up substantive methods and guarantee steady consistence. The criticalness of the venture usage catch up involves moderation of potential tricks in the execution measures imagined by the project goals.

References
Clayton, G. (2009). History of industrial hygiene. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/74-177-b.pdf
Center for Disease Control. (2007). Application of hazard evaluation techniques. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/88-79897/pdfs/88-79897.pdf
Drown, D. (2013). Industrial hygiene qualitative risk assessment. Retrieved from http://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/cal_vpp/Best_Practices_Symposiums/IH_Assesement.pdf
Hanford Mission Support Contract. (2013). Industrial hygiene monitoring, reporting and records management. Retrieved from http://www.hanford.gov/pmm/files.cfm/MSC- PRO-409.pdf
McDonald, T. (2010). Effective hazard recognition and control. Retrieved from http://www.saif.com/_files/SafetyHealthGuides/S927EffectiveHazRecControl.pdf
Work Place Safety and Insurance Board. (2011). Recognize, assess, control workplace hazards. Retrieved from http://www.wsib.on.ca/files/Content/Fact Sheet_English3181A/3181A_Recognize_Assess_Control.pdf
 Industrial Hygiene Sampling Industrial Hygiene Sampling Exposure Assessment conducted on Sept 13, 2007, Retrieved from http://www.chec.pitt.edu/documents/ExposAssessLectures/2504KellerLecture6.pdf

 http://www.ab.ust.hk/hseo/sftywise/199707/page5.htm

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PROGRAM 5

Running head: INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PROGRAM 1

Figure 1: Hierarchy of workplace hazard controls retrieved from http://www.easyguides.com.au/sitebuilder/store/large/1871/hie001.jpg

 

Agriculture in Saudi Arabia

 

Introduction
The development of agriculture in Saudi Arabia has improved significantly in the contemporary times as compared to the way it was some decades back. Though the country is dry and arid in nature, the country harbors areas that have climatic conditions favoring agriculture. The government has been in the forefront of helping the farmers and also the population by helping in the converting of arid areas into agricultural zones. This has generally been aided by the implementation of major irrigation projects and also by adopting large scale mechanization.

This has been vital in the developmental of agriculture in Saudi Arabia as it has replenished the previously desert land into cultivatable land. In the contemporary times, agriculture has flourished such that the country is involved in agricultural export where wheat, dates, fruits and vegetables among other agricultural products are sold to other countries around the world. The government commits heavily to the agricultural industry and the ministry of agriculture is mandated with formulating policies that guides agriculture in the country. The private sector at the same time, takes part in agricultural farming since the government offers loans and other necessities to then to engage in agriculture. The aim of this paper is intended to explore agriculture in Saudi Arabia citing its history and effects in the lives of the Saudis.

Historical Background of agriculture in Saudi Arabia
The onset of agriculture in full capacity started in the 1970s when the government of Saudi Arabia took control of the project as a sign of helping the citizens to be self sufficient. Prior to this time, the government had tried to entice people to engage in agriculture in 1927 when it exempted taxes and custom duties to all agricultural equipments and this initiative had lasted up to 1932. The government used to buy farm machinery and then sold them to the farmers at subsidized rates on long term loans. The government also sold and let land to farmers at nominal prices to help farmers to be able to purchase and farm in their lands.

To address the issue of the lack of water during those times, the government dug wells and also contacted people and agencies with agricultural competencies to train farmer on the best methods to apply in farming. This was aimed at trying to transit the farmers from the traditional methods of agricultural and Pastoralist to the modern agricultural methods. Directorate of agriculture was established in 1948 through the royal decree of 1954 so that it could manage and develop agricultural production in the country. Key sectors relating to agriculture were introduced including fisheries, water, research, finance and agricultural administration.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Saudi government took it to task to restructure the agriculture setting in Saudi Arabia. This was done by formulating the main objectives of agriculture which were food security through self sufficient and rural homes improvements. In the events of government support, various patterns of food production emerged and these included the traditional agricultural production and the large scale production. The traditional agricultural regions did not benefit from the developmental programs and the financial support from the government led to the large scale production of agricultural products. These were managed by rich locals and foreign companies.

Forms of agriculture in Saudi Arabia
There are two typed of agriculture that is carried out in Saudi Arabia. This includes the traditional agricultures together with the nomadic pastoralists as well as the modern agriculture. Though the current system comprise of both the traditional and the modern methods, there is a distinguishable character between the small scale and the large scale producers. Because of the irregularity of rainfall, in the past many people opted to be nomads. Therefore these traditional people mostly kept livestock as a source of livelihood. When government stepped in, there was the change from pastoralist to mixed farming. Under this method, the people started farming since they could not find water easily and at the same time kept animals. As time went by, the nomadism declined because of political and economic factors and sedentarization took over where tribal groupings emerged. The new legal structures brought about land distribution. This led to the start of commercial and large scale production though this took place in the 1990s. As the population increased, so was commercial farming and this brought about mixed farming where agricultural production flourished bringing forth the modern farming methods including the cash crop growing.

Reasons that made Saudi engage in agriculture
Despite the extreme weather conditions in the Saudi Arabia, the government saw it best to engage in agriculture so that the supply of food products to the citizens could be met. This being the case, various reasons have been put forward to explain the reasons being the onset of agriculture in Saudi. One of the main reasons which prompted Saudi to engage in agriculture despite the arid situation was the need for food independence. In Saudi Arabia, food independence is deemed to have a national appeal and therefore, it helps the country take control of its own political and economic destinations.

There was also a vital reason that made agriculture flourish in Saudi Arabia. The relocation of some people led to the introduction of farming. The increase of population may also have led to the government to initiate farming as well as reducing overreliance of imports. At the same time, some people in the ruling class wanted to enrich themselves and so they engaged in farming since it seemed lucrative business.

Agriculture development
For agriculture to be effected and implemented fully in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, several measures have been put in order to cater for the self sufficiency of the people of Saudi in terms of food production. Apart from the conservation of the underground water as well as the surface water, the ministry responsible for agriculture has undertaken various measures that include the following. There is an ongoing program to train farmers on the use of modern technology including the use of machines and seedlings. This has been aimed at helping the farmers to yield higher crops that are pest resistance as well as those that are able to withstand the climatic condition of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. At the same time, researchers have come up with better means of exterminating insects through the modern technology.

Various centers have been established within the kingdom where farmers report so that they can be taught, see and get the various ideas concerning agriculture. Seminars and open days are held where the farmers are taught on the best ways to practice agriculture. The government has also established nursery beds where interested farmers can buy seedlings for their crops at a reasonable price. These seedlings are vital in the sense that they are of the best quality and therefore they help in the production of quality output. The provisions of fertilizers and other chemicals at reasonable prices has helped to improve of agriculture in Saudi. These chemicals provide the latest technology chemical’s that help the farmers in producing quality yields. The government has also committed to do research for and experiments on the lands, animals and plants so that they could come up with the best alternatives that could be used to increase the yields of the Saudis.

Agriculture and water
Despite the fact that Saudi Arabia is known to have no permanent rivers, lakes and with little or no rainfall, the country still uses water for various uses including irrigation. Where does this water comes from? It should be known that water is extremely valuable in Saudi and the demand for water both for domestic consumption and farming is on the rise. This being the cas3e, the country utilizes various options but mainly the following. The ministry of water and electricity of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia have utilized the services of the aquifers as the main sources of electricity. An Aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well (Karamouz, 2012).These underground reservoirs are vast and the government started locating them since 1970s. As a result, the government has dug thousands of such aquifers in most of the areas both for agricultural and domestic usage.

Another major source of water in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the sea (Chai, 2006).  Sea contains salty water and water from the sea is obtained through desalination which is a process that produces potable water from the blackish sea water (Zuhur, 2011). This water after being taken through purification is used for agricultural use. It should be noted that Saudi Arabia is the largest producer of desalinated water in the world. In the country, SWCC (the Saline Water Conversion Corporation), operates 27 stations in Saudi that produces in excess of three million cubic meters of portable water per day. The capacity of these plans provides almost 70% of the water used in the city and is a source of electric power generation.

Apart from the aquifers and the desalinated water, the country also gets water from dams. Dams were created to capture rain water during the rainy seasons or after frequent flash floods. The country has in excess of 200 dams that have the capacity of holding 16 billion cubic feet’s of runoff water annually during the rainy season. Somme of these dams have been located in Wadi Jizan, Wadi Fatima, Wadi Bisha and Najran (Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, 2013) and the water obtained from these dams are solely used for irrigation and it is distributed through irrigation canals to the irrigated lands.

Because of the scarcity of water in the kingdom, recycled water is used for irrigation purposes. It is believed that 40% of the water that is used in domestic and urban places is recycled again to be used in the urban parks and irrigation schemes. Some of the recycling plants in Saudi are located in Riyadh, Jeddah, and other places in the urban industrial centers.

Agricultural achievements
Agriculture in Saudi Arabia has seen milestones in terms of development. The 1970s are said to be the years when there was the development of agriculture in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The government launched extensive technology base approaches that helped in the promotion of agriculture. In this the government established rural roads, irrigation networks and export facilities as well as storage facilities to encourage agricultural production. It also encouraged agricultural research as well as training of farmers on the best farming methods.
The result of this was the vast production of basic foods with substantial amount of meat, eggs, and milk. The increased food production also led to a great proportional decrease in imports and led to various products being exported from the country including wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, flowers among other products to the international markets.

The country has been able to support aquaculture either using pens in the sea or onshore tanks. These fish pens ate mostly found d along the coast through companies like “the national shrimp company”. The country has also been able to establish wheat production such that it no longer imports wheat but rather exports to other countries. By 1984 the company was self sufficient in wheat production and had begun exporting the same to more than 30 countries including china and the former USSR. This is grown in areas around Tabuk, Hasim and Qasim. Irrigation farming has also led to the growing of barley, millet and sorghum, though this has been reduced as a way of conserving water. Through irrigation and the large scale farming, the country has been able to produce fruits enough for local and international consumption. Fruits and vegetables that include water melons, grapes, and citrus are produced and sold to the neighbors. At the same time some tropical fruits like bananas, pineapples, paw paws and guavas are also produced at Jizan. Locals have been transformed through the diversification of the food production in the region. The production of dates is in large scales and it is used as international humanitarian aid.

Threats of agriculture in Saudi Arabia
Despite the growing food production In Saudi, the increase in population triggers the increase of food production as well as other agricultural products in Saudi Arabia. The increase in food consumption as well as the composition of the food produced has affected the food demanded as well as the development of the agricultural industry. In this case, there is the challenge of then dwindling climatic conditions that in the recent years constrained the agricultural sector. This has led to low productivity and this translates to the country opting other measures like the import of basic products.

It is worth noting that the increased temperatures due to global warming have led to decreased precipitation and this is also likely to affect the agricultural sector in Saudi. The increased temperatures have been decreasing the amount of water in the underground and this has led to the reduction of water in the reservoirs as well as the recycled water. This is likely to affect food and more precisely the irrigation in Saudi Arabia thus posing as a great danger on the future of the country.

Reinforcing agriculture in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The initiatives taken by the government have aided the country’s agricultural sector in achieving productivity. This has been enabled by the government’s initiatives to provide soft, interest free loans as well as technical services. One of the contributions of the government includes the loc cost water, fuel and also electricity. Other benefits include the duty free imports on raw materials as well as machineries. The government has encouraged the joint ventures and ownership of companies that deals with the agricultural production and these companies have been exempted from paying taxes for a maximum period of ten years. Other investment incentives have been put forward to help the country be self sufficient in most of the food products as well as having the provisions to export.

The ministry of agriculture as a way of reinforcing the agriculture sector has been frequently been undertaking research, development and extension services to the farmers as a way of helping them increase their knowhow as well as learn new means of agriculture. At the same time, the Saudi Arabian agricultural bank has been providing the farmers and other investors in the agricultural sectors with subsidies as well as granting interest free loans. Companies like the grain silos and flour mills organization that was established in 1972 is mandated with the purchasing and storage of wheat, the construction of flour mills and the production of animal feds in order to support the national growth of agriculture.

At the same time, the government has encouraged the participation of the private sector to invest in the agricultural sector. This has been made possible through the government allocating financial resources so that infrastructures can be improved that links the consumer markets and the production areas. The government has also initiated the land reclamation and distribution program whereby fallows land is distribute free of charge in small plots as a way of increasing the land for cultivation. This is aimed at encouraging crop as well as animal production. Under this method, the beneficiaries are required to develop the piece of land within two to five years and if the person complies fully with the regulations, then full ownership are awarded to the person.

The government as a way of boosting the farmers has been assisting new farmers in the implementation of capital intensive projects so that they may be able to diversify as well as increase efficiency. Another initiative that the government is taking towards improving the agricultural sector is through the provision of funds and support for research projects that are aimed at producing new food crops to increase harvest and also to develop plant strains that have greater resistance to pests. The programs are made possible through the collaboration of the local farmers and the researchers and scientists who are found at agricultural research facilities at the Saudi Arabian universities and colleges.

Conclusion
Agriculture in Saudi Arabia has greatly improved the lives as well as the economic status of the country. In the contemporary times, agricultures has been enhanced due to the government’s involvement and the will of the people. The commitment that the government puts in the agricultural sector including the availability of water, land, machineries as well as the technology has greatly helped improve the agricultural sector. Despite the aridity of the place, various sources of water have been provided including aquifer, recycling of waste water as well water collected during the sporadic rainfall season. The government has taken various measures to enhance agricultural productivity through improving the infrastructure, providing finances as well as undertaking research and development so as to help farmers produce quality products.

References
Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, (2013). Water resopurces; About Saudi Arabia retrieved on 29th October 2013 from http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/agriculture_water/Water_Resources.aspx
Chai, W. (Ed.). (2006). Saudi Arabia: A Modern Reader. University Press.
Zuhur, S. (2011). Saudi Arabia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
Karamouz, M., & Nazif, S. (2012). Hydrology and Hydroclimatology: Principles and Applications. CRC Press.

AGRICULTURE IN SAUDI ARABIA 12

Running Head: AGRICULTURE IN SAUDI ARABIA 1

Military in a democracy versus a democratic army and citizen soldier

Introduction
A deeper analysis of David Halberstam’s work of War in a Time of Peace seems to imply that democracy is the type of government where the masses have the voice of direct expression. The perception in this type of government is that the will of those regarded as the majority often prevail irrespective of the elements it is based on like prejudice and has no regard to the consequences. America in this context is regarded to be a democratic country and thus its military is operating in a democracy. Military democracy thus implies the manner of power organization and the corresponding phase that makes a society on the verge of disintegration become transformed into a class society. The military leaders, in this case the ruling Presidents, Bill Clinton, from developed countries like America are driven by the desire to implement foreign policy to gradually restore democracy in other countries that have resorted to war and lack democracy like Somalia and the Balkan.

Military in a democracy
Among the oldest issues affecting human governance has been the challenge of getting the subordination of military forces to ruling political power. In the twentieth century, civilian control and guidance of the military has raised concerns among popular governments like the United States, France, and other comrades of oppressive regimes like the Soviet Union and China, of dictatorial tyrannies in Germany and Italy since 1945. If – and how – a social order controls the individuals, who own a definitive force of physical compulsion, and guarantees their dependability both to the specific government in force and to the administration as a rule, is fundamental to equitable legislation. The top leadership in a military democracy in America during the 1990s was feeling reluctant to make any commitments on foreign policy abroad. Clinton was feeling obliged to rather focus on strengthening the economic status within the country. Nonetheless, he gets pressure from his advisers, with some who were serving in the military like Clark Wesley and Collin Powell that eventually make America delve into the Vietnam War From the look of things, Halberstam seems to imply that it is the war in Vietnam that guided the major decisions that were being made by the State house administration and in some cases it led to incidences of indecisiveness. This thus affects the operations of a military that is working in a democracy like America.

Civilian control has extraordinary essentialness today. All around the post socialist world, social orders are battling to raise just foundations. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization has pronounced citizen control an essential for enrollment. In empowering democratization, the United States and other Western forces use non military person control as a measure of advancement to majority rules system. While majority rules system is spreading in South and Central America, and in Europe, Asia, and Africa, there exists no set of benchmarks by which to assess if civil person control exists, how well it capacities, and what the visualization is for its proceeded victory. Control by civil folks presents two tests. For adult majority rules systems, where citizen control has generally been solid and military stations have concentrated on outer guard, the test is if civil folks can practice inimitability in military arrangement and choice making – that is, casing the choices and characterize the dialogue, and in addition make the last decision. The point when the military likes incredible esteem, has propelled bureaucratic abilities, accepts that its capability to satisfy its mission may be at danger, or comes to mistrust the citizen administration; civil people can confront extraordinary snags in practicing their power.

Fledgling popular democracy, with inadequate experience in joining famous government and non military person control, face a harder challenge. They should guarantee that the military won’t endeavor an overthrow, or generally oppose citizen power. In numerous previous despotisms, the military has focused on inside request or been profoundly included in governmental issues, in some cases going after social order instead of ensuring it. There the boss prerequisite is to build a convention of civil person control, to make the military foundation politically impartial, and to anticipate or block any plausibility of military mediation in political life.

The assignment will at present stay to make citizen control over national security arrangement and choice making. Be that as it may in the new majority rules systems, citizen endeavors to increase inimitability over military issues hazard inciting military resistance, or, if popular notion does not uphold the civil folks, maybe even military intercession. For majority rules system, citizen control – that is, control of the military by non military person authorities chose by the individuals – is crucial. Citizen control permits a country to base its values, establishments, and practices on the prevalent will instead of on the decisions of military leaders, whose viewpoint by definition concentrates on the need for inside request and outside security.

The military is, by need, around the minimum popularity based organizations in human experience; military traditions and systems crash by nature with singular opportunity and civil freedom, the most elevated values in majority rule social orders. In light of the fact that their essential design is to wage equipped clash, military organizations are intended for viciousness and intimidation, and throughout the hundreds of years have improved the organizational structure, working methodology, and unique values required to succeed in war.

Authority in the military stresses progression with the goal that people and units act as per the aims of administrators, and can succeed under the exact most exceedingly awful of physical circumstances and mental burdens. While a significant number of the military’s expert qualities – valor, legitimacy, relinquish, trustworthiness, steadfastness, administration – are around the most regarded in human experience, the standards and procedures inherent to military establishments wander so distant from the premises of just social order that the relationship is naturally ill-disposed and here and there shaky. Military conducts are practical.

Democratic army
Halberstam built essential in light of the history of the military in Western social orders, expounded what was broadly acknowledged as the liberal equitable model of common military connection. The foremost avocation of the military officer, Halberstam argued is to the state. Politics is past the extent of military skill, and the cooperation of military officers in legislative issues undermines their professionalism. The military officer should remain nonpartisan politically. The territory of military science is subordinate to, then again autonomous of, the zone of legislative issues. The military calling exists to serve the state … The unrivalled political astuteness of the statesman must be acknowledged as a truth .The thought of the subservience of the military to citizen power, accompanies a convention retreating to Plato. Halberstam, on the other hand, tested the basic distinguishing proof of non military person control with equitable government, and military control with categorical or totalitarian government: the military might undermine civil person control in a majority rules system, he contended, obtaining power by honest to goodness forms, and inside a totalitarian framework the force of the military may be decreased by such implies as making contending military or paramilitary units or by penetrating it with ‘political commissars’. ‘Subjective civil person control’, he finished up, ‘this is not the syndication of any specific established framework. Halberstam went ahead to recognize five examples of common military relations, in view of varying relative degrees of military/anti-military philosophy, military force, and military professionalism yet as prove in his later study (Halberstam), for Halberstam military intercession spoke to a vital breakdown of the of the liberal democratic political order.

While Halberstam’s thought of military professionalism has remained powerful, the spate of post-freedom military overthrows in the new states of Africa from the late 1990s aroused a more discriminating examination of the connection between non military person government and the military. A few reporters, in reality, recommended that the assumed lack of bias and partition of the military from legislative issues was at the very most a Western thought, if not a complete fiction. Not just did military mediation now and again happen according to the viable breakdown of law based civil administrations – with the apparent point of restoring majority rules system, and civilly with generous mainstream underpin – however in some new states, quite the socialist individuals’ republics and the guided majority rule government of America’s President Clinton, an elective model of majority rule government was embraced, in which the military was seen as a necessary part of the political framework as opposed to formulation off the political realm.

Various political administrations and regimes, in which the example of relations between non military person government officials and the military spreads a wide range, may as well claim to be equitable is confirmation to the ubiquity of the term in worldwide political talk. Such prominence reflects the degree to which the term demonstrations as an operator of political legitimating in a world where majority rules system is acknowledged, at any rate logically, as a general exceptional. Anyway can military leaders ever be portrayed as equitable? On the other hand, to be sure, would they say they are essentially against equitability? The description of majority rules system as a basically challenged notion loans underpin to a relativist position, the expansion of which is that vote based system can mean all things to all individuals. This successfully denies the plausibility that any all inclusive understandings might be arrived at and serves to reimburse the worst of tyrannies and to undermine the genuineness of fair and reformist restrictions. Then again, it is a limited definition, particularly as for institutional structure.

one method for managing this definitional issue is to affirm that administrations measure up diversely against different criteria of majority rule government, and that the thought of a continuum from additional popularity based to less vote based is the most advantageous and compelling approach to the issue of breaking down and thinking about administrations. Majority rules system is seen regarding three crucial and for the most part acknowledged conditions: astronomical rivalry for government office; an elevated amount of political cooperation; and a level of civil and political freedoms sufficient to guarantee rivalry and support. They recognise, in the meantime, that nations that comprehensively fulfil these criteria, by and by do so to distinctive degrees and that the verge between equitable and undemocratic is now and again smudged and flawed. For military rulers, in any case, the boundless companionship of popular government with civil person inimitability has made a specific emergency of realness. A focal mainstay of present day vote based hypothesis is the precept of constitutionalism which, in its most straightforward structure, alludes to constrained government, a framework in which anyone of rulers is to the extent that to the tenet of law as the group of nationals.

An imperative culmination to the majority rule regulation of constitutionalism is non military person incomparability (however this in itself is not a sufficient condition for majority rules system following, as Halberstam brought up, numerous non-fair governments keep up non military person control over their military and police organisations). Vote based system requires, along these lines, not just that military be liable to civil person control, yet that those civil people who control the military and police should themselves be liable to the vote based methodology. A key guideline of the law based model of citizen matchlessness in common military relations dwells in the imperative refinement between the state and the authentic government. It is to the recent that the military owes its essential loyalty, and any certain qualification that the military could be enticed to draw between the objectives of the administration and those of the state must incite a genuine genuineness issue; this is so in light of the fact that the majority rule government show demands that the military’s energy is authentic just in so far as it has been embraced by social order overall and that its handy destinations are those situated for it by the legislature.

Under the states of pluralistic majority rule government, the relations between the military and civil people are, anyhow hypothetically, truly direct. Officers are open authorities. They are not the epitome of any specific set of qualities. They are not the picked shields of any particular social or political establishment. They hold open office on the suspicion that they will give social order a particular set of administrations at whatever point social order views it as in the need of having such administrations performed. This reflects the profoundly inserted supposition of up to date just hypothesis, that it is the prominently chose government, and no other form or individual, that is wholly answerable for choosing what arrangements are to be sought after in the name of the individuals. In so doing, the legislature is compelled by the points of confinement to movement set out under the law of the constitution, and is eventually considered responsible for its exercises and choices when it confronts the judgement of the individuals at the surveys.

There have been scenarios in which a civil person is selected in government but once in office repeals the constitution and rejects the law based values exemplified in it (counting truly intense decisions. In such circumstances – which have been not phenomenal in post-frontier states – the military may be the main element inside the nation equipped for switching such advancement and restoring majority rule government. While contemporary just hypothesis has all the earmarks of being quite conflicting with the idea that the military has any part in singularly acting to protect the national investment, the most well-known defence for military mediation is simply this. Such speaks to the national investment have much of the time been coupled with references to some discerned emergency or danger including the security of the state or genuine budgetary or social issues.

The successive military rising to power has civilly been persuaded by an observed need to spare their countries from feeble, degenerate, and undisciplined civil person initiative. Various reporters on the part of the military in legislative issues have watched the propensity of military to support their intercession as far as the national investment, and in this manner to distinguish themselves with the desiderata of nationhood. Most have been sceptical. The military can get its self image as a guarantor to the most fundamental and lasting interests of the country, thereby arrogating to itself the requisite legitimacy and thus assume the right to rule.

Nevertheless, tyrant standard is not select to military administrations and, as the detailed analyses in this volume outline, military have assumed a part in genius popular government administration moves. The basic element for most analysts on common military relations concerns the proposition of military rulers. To legitimise their mediation, military administrations civilly fight that their tenet is just a preparatory or brief (yet quite important) arrange along the street to a completely equitable political framework, and guarantee an early come back to citizen guideline, consequently recognising, an essential element for their genuineness is a dash or two of the dialect of vote based system. In a few cases, military standard has been defended as vital for the recovery of the country to take into account stable and adequate guideline; military administrations have even depicted their part as that of fair guide. Yet once out of the sleeping enclosure military rulers have occasional been restless to surrender power and even where there have been moves once more to non military person tenet the military have normally held a contribution in governmental issues and have been more inclined to intercede again if disappointed with the execution of citizen governments.

Observing methods of move from tyrant military manage to majority rules system in great moves have utilised a methodology of incremental instead of prompt non military person control. For majority rule government in Latin America, both military men and non military person leaders should undertake new parts. A distinction that the military is one of the strongest formal establishments in social orders that are in pressing need of political and social intelligibility postures tests to Latin American civil person leaders that are altogether different from those went up against by their improved country partners. These chronicled legacies help highlight the focal inquiries of how to push majority rule government. To begin with, is majority rule government most really and adequately realized through U. S. alternately multilateral movement? Now and again, this may turn out to be a false decision. Assuming that the activity of the United States (or an alternate force) is without a doubt in the administration of the assent of the legislated, manager of law, and principal flexibilities as comprehended in the UN Charter, and then it should not be dismissed. Yet multilateral movement has more discerned realness.

Second, is the utilization of military power or secretive activity legitimized to advertise vote based system. In some cases military activity may be essential to expedite or restore vote based system, as well as to end an especially uncaring manifestation of totalitarianism. Military mediation in Rwanda in 1994 to counteract or stop genocide might have been barely such a case. Be that as it may, mediation ought to be a positively last resort. With respect to incognito action, the United States led mystery operations to help compels of majority rules system in Western Europe at a young hour neglected War and in Eastern Europe later. Some movement was defended as pushing majority rule government when it was just advertising hostile to the Soviet actors. Nonetheless, utilizing transparent approaches towards supporting democratization is always the best option whenever possible.

One of the methods that has been used to undertake mediation by the United States has been to captivate and backing civil social order as far and wide as possible. For a quarter-century, worked independently from the U.S. government and working through partners of the Democratic Party, Republican Party, Chamber of Commerce, and Afl-Cio, the National Endowment for Democracy has aided civil social order on-screen characters to secure or combine majority rule government everywhere throughout the world. Likewise, private establishments, frequently in organization with government, have supported grass-attaches associations to help raise common social orders universally also. Uphold for indigenous, mainly headed developments is superior to guide U.S. government movement, if non military person, military, or secretive.

In the previous five years, the United Nations has gone more distant in energetically pushing civil social order. In 2006, Secretary-General Kofi A. Annan started the Un Democracy Fund (UNDEF) to uphold a cluster of civil social order associations. Eighty-five percent of the stores are solicited to head off to nongovernmental associations instead of UN organizations or governments as implementers. Before UNDEF, an extraordinary arrangement of discourse happened in the Un about the imperativeness of common social order to monetary improvement and human rights, yet the talk was unmatched by engaging modifying.

UNDEF is starting to transform that. To date, its four rounds of gifts have cleverly subsidized a wide go of majority rule government’s building pieces, incorporating ladies’ strengthening, metro instruction, and anticorruption measures. In spite of the fact that UNDEF remains underfunded, it is a stage in the right bearing. President Obama was right to note in his 2010 location to the Un General Assembly that now is the ideal time for each Member State to expand the Un Democracy Fund. U.S. energy for majority rules system advancement has been shaken lately because of various political and financial setbacks. These incorporate the turmoil in post-attack Iraq; decision comes about supporting radicals, developing questions about the neoliberal monetary model, and the ascent of an elective Chinese statist display. Yet there is greater need for military democracy than ever.

The Citizen Soldier
In medieval times it was a matter of law that civilians should buy at their own cost and keep primed in their homes some essential weapons to serve and secure their lord and state. The rulers anticipated that the workers will have gained certain abilities with their weapons before arrangement, in spite of the fact that they neglected to furnish any kind of financing for preparing. It was required that every man keep in his home a weapon suitable to his rank and position. The American utilization of local army was, as a general rule, a come back to universal practices of this prior age. In medieval Europe the law characterized a local army as the entire grouping of freemen between the ages of fifteen and forty years, who were needed by law to keep weapons with regards to their country. In the later Middle Ages the local army was the entire grouping of residents, burgesses, free inhabitants, villains and others from 15 to 60 years of age who were obliged by the law to be outfitted.

Trained Bands (or Trainbands) are discovered principally in Elizabethan and Stuart England. The notion and term may be discovered as promptly as the rule of Alfred the Great (849-899). For more stupendous security, certain men in or close to every settlement or City, who volunteered or were chosen overall, were given arms ahead of time of any crisis. These men turned into the pillar of Cromwell’s guard throughout the Puritan Revolution and these units improved from the broader volunteer army. The term is at times experienced alluding to select civilian army in the American provinces, particularly in New England. Most European countries had deserted the local army framework by the sixteenth century. Americans reprimanded the English for deserting the state army framework which had worked so well here (Feaver and Horn 2001 ). The civilian army, alone, had served as a look out for the local native in the pilgrim time of American history. During the pilgrim period Americans came to believe the local army to a far more excellent degree than they believed the general imperial armed force. After the wars were over the workers, excessively, came back to their fields. Tradesmen, agriculturists, men in all strolls and employments of life, had one thing in as a relatable point: they stood as faithful comrades against the adversary as a feature of the native soldiery.

The national trooper stands in stamped difference to the proficient fighter whose job is war. The resident officer does not enter war for pay or goods. He heads off to war just reluctantly, impelled on by ideas of patriotism, patriotism and obligation. He condemns war. He battles just as a last response when his country is debilitated and not in imperialistic endeavours. There is no human establishment that is more essential than the local army. As we should demonstrate in this and the resulting four volumes, with the exception of just religious nonconformists, the correct, customary residents claimed guns, less as a benefit than as a matter of obligation. A free man is outfitted; a slave is confiscated of his arms. No man can believe an administration that tries to incapacitate him.
How does the idea of an army in a democracy account for the realities of combat as well as what is called by some “military culture” in more or les

Since the conclusion of the Cold War, there has been one major war left for the U.S. military to struggle with, that of Iraq. This has left the military with various roles of performing several missions in line with peacekeeping and other non-traditional humanitarian activities as it struggles to make adjustments towards the various social demands like integrating women and even bisexuals in its ranks in line with the dynamic changes of the 21st century. The challenge is even that the army is expected to conduct all these initiatives with very limited budgetary allocations due to the unstable financial system of the US. The consequences is that the military is left in a dilemma of responding to the uncertainties that arise across the globe while at the same time strive to create lasting and mutual relationships with the civil society in American so as to retain its core raison d’être, meaning that the military either has a role of deterring or winning any forms of war in the rival countries of the US.

The military thus finds itself in a similar dilemma encountered after the Vietnam War and WW2. The lesson that seems to be cutting across is the need for the military not only be more aggressive as a profession but should also respond to the emerging issues that threaten to shrink its voice. The military leaders ought to strive towards reshaping the notion the civil society has of the military and admit that the political interference of the military work has hindered its democracy and ability to effectively perform its duties independently. Such types of political involvement indicate that the military highly depends on specific political actors for survival. This has largely been attributed to the fact that the U.S. military over the years has been is under very tight control of the civilians control to the extent its voice cannot be heard within the civilian councils. The democratization of the military, which implies having either the convergence or divergence clearly defined between the military and civil society must be put in place. Another aspect that must be keenly evaluated is the use of the military force in tackling the foreign policy affairs in other countries. As (Feaver and Horn 2001 ) observes, the need to educate the public on military affairs should not be undermined.

References
Feaver, Peter. 2001. Soldiers and civilians: the civil-military gap and American national security. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: MIT Press.
Halberstam, David. 2001. War in a time of peace: Bush, Clinton, and the generals. New York [u.a.]: Scribner.

MILITARY IN A DEMOCRACY VS.A DEMOCRATIC ARMY 10

Black Music

Many people refer to Black music as the contemporary urban gospel. Genres under the black music are gospel music, hip-hop, blues, jazz and rock. One of the aesthetic characteristics of gospel music is that it contains Christian lyrics and sounds. Hip-hop genre displays characteristics and components of rapping, scratching and beat boxing. Jazz sub-genre include all dynamics and improvisation that have affected black music. Jazz also represents African- American music. Jazz and hip-hop have continuously borrowed and experimented with each other. Both of them have some elements of improvisation, which includes exchange between musicians. Hip-hop emerged in the late 1960s when jazz was undergoing a transformation. In fact, the vocal style of jazz and poetry corresponds that of rappers.

Rap traces back to a number of years in West Africa. Rappers used drums to establish a beat in Traditional African music. Singing or chants often accompanied the beats. The entrance chorus coincided with the main beat and not the soloist. Graffiti and break dance played a major role in evolution of rap and hip-hop music. Dressing loose pants, which originated in the prisons, was one of the unique features of breakdance. Hip-hop did arise in the 1970 s where African American and Peurto Rican influences were merged. ‘’Jeff Porcaro ‘’, Drummer World, including the actual best with transcription is a performance that best demonstrates the use of African elements of style in the field. This is because it involves the use of drums that were the richest form of African elements of style in the cultural ground. It contains the earliest form of vocal style. Therefore, black music has a long history often accompanied by various changes in the structure and components.

Surname 1

Women’s Liberation Movement

Women’s Liberation Movement is a social struggle that intends to eradicate gender oppressions and put women on equal social and economic status as men. Women felt some forms of oppression in the society and they pressed for employment opportunities and education, improved child-care, limits to employment discrimination, and reproductive free will. Their efforts were enhanced by the development of proficient birth-control methods that could free women from the never-ending cycle of childrearing, the advancement of mechanized-labor saving tools to improve home chores, and the emergence of Second World War. A number of organizations such as the Dunedin Collective for Women (DCW) and National Organization for Women (NOW) remained pragmatic in addressing a number of issues that affected women. Women become conscious to the enduring inequalities in the male dominated society and they resolved to form their own movements. This helped them to execute their agenda and they come out as victors eventually.
Women’s Liberation Movement

Introduction
Women’s Liberation Movement is defined as social struggle that intends to eradicate gender oppressions and put women on equal social and economic status as men. Women’s Liberation Movement developed in three crucial stages. The first stage is enlightenment. The few women that were educated in the late 19th century began to promote the rights of women both in the workplace and education sector. The second stage was the growing number of women working in various organizations. This stage adorned equal opportunities for women and the gender disparity in the population ensured that women had the power to enhance their roles. The third stage of Women’s Liberation Movement is the modern liberation movement. This stage is traced back to the entry of women into the industrial labor force following the success of first and second stages of the movement. During the Second World War, workforce requirements were equal for both men and women; women gained more from it because a number of men were involved in wars (Shah & Radhika, 2005, 217-218). The paper will discuss social, economic, and political conditions that influenced the movement, organizations that played a key role during the movement, and the strategies that were utilized during the movement.

Factors that influenced Women’s Liberation Movement
The determining factor the success of issues and demands raised by Women’s Liberation Movement was the theoretical understating of origins and nature of women oppression by men. Women believed that they were denied their essential rights, lured to remain at home for their whole lives, and singled out in the workplace. The 1930s was a very tough time for women but poor women were hit by numerous hardships due to the economic depression. The subsequent generations of women were brought up with these memories. At the back of their minds, they knew that their mothers were hard working and that they deserve to be rewarded. These generation of women felt the oppression in the society and they pressed for employment opportunities and education, improved child-care, limits to employment discrimination, and reproductive free will (Kinnear, 1998, p. 61).

The development of proficient birth-control methods that could free women from the never-ending cycle of childrearing was the first cause of women liberation. The availability of birth-control methods offered women with the discretion to decide whether to have children or not. Women were also able to pursue some interests not only from their homes but also from outside world. In essence, the development of birth control offered women with the freedom to decide on the time that they could have children. The outcome was women got the opportunity to kick-start their education and pursue careers. The advancement of mechanized-labor saving tools to improve home chores is the second incident that influenced Women’s Liberation Movement.

This enhanced the leisure and freedom of women because prior to the development of labor saving machines, homemakers were spending up to 15 hours in a day doing housework. The inventions of machines such as dishwashers and vacuum cleaners have reduced homemaker’s working hours to five hours. Women’ Liberation Movement was boosted by Second World War. For the duration of the Second World War, a number of men were serving in the military. Women were presented with the opportunity to fill the vacancies in the labor force. Thousands of them worked in factories and others took control of businesses. They took the opportunity in both hands and this influenced their liberation (Kinnear, 1998, p. 61).

Organizations that played a key role during the Movement
Women liberation groups continued to press for economic equality once men returned from war. The focus for these groups was equal employment opportunities, financial liberty for women in marriage, and support for single mothers. In addition, these groups put more focus on equal division of matrimonial property in the event of a divorce. Political relevance was sort of interest for some of these liberation groups. For example, the Dunedin Collective for Women (DCW) and National Organization for Women (NOW) remained pragmatic in addressing a number of issues that affected women. They held public meetings, lobbied politicians, informed members on the progress they were making, and issued press releases when it mattered. In essence, the 1960s saw all genders become vocal on the principle of equality in the society.

The Food and Drug Administration played a key role in promoting the liberation of women. They approved use of oral contraceptives. This move provided women with the discretion to decide on reproductive rights. In 1965, Equal Employment Opportunity Commissioners (EEOC) was established to enforce the civil rights act. These organizations fought against any form of women discrimination in the workforce. New York Radical Feminist and Redstocking were amongst the numerous groups protested in 1969 against women dignity, which was misused in the name of beauty contest. The protests were aimed at showing that women are not just about looks. The federal government amended the Equal Rights Act in 1963 and this prohibited any form of sex-based wage discrimination in the workplace (Cochran, 1999, p. 142).

Strategies utilized during the movement
Women become conscious to the enduring inequalities in the male dominated society and they resolved to form their own movements. These women understood that they could organize protest against male power with men still in their movements. The strategy helped them gain the equality status with men because laws were enforced to fight any form of discrimination against women. In addition, women used Guerilla Theater during the struggle for liberation to get rid of women oppression (Lind & Brzuzy, 2008, p. 513).

During the Miss America Pageants, women fought for their rights not to stand for beauty objects because it encouraged physical attractiveness as the most important measure of women’s value. The protest captured national attention before spreading to various parts of the world. Furthermore, women decided to fight for their liberation at a time when civil rights movement was at the peak. According to them, the climate was just right for them to speak about their rights as well. They were able to get the attention they intended to get. The movement was resonated in various parts of the world. In essence, women carried out campaigns, wrote materials and journal, and organized protests. All these were aimed at highlighting their fight for equal rights and oppression. They got the attention of international bodies and a number of treaties were rarified following the used strategy (Lind & Brzuzy, 2008, p. 513).

Lessons learnt
The liberation of women from the perceived oppressions could have been much easier had women liberation groups been organized. This is so because the groups were informal, intimate, and egalitarian. Essentially, they did not have one central leader. Women’s Liberation Movement full of ideas regarding leadership established various groups ranging from churches to communities. The leadership of these groups emancipated from political organizations that fell between civil rights and student movements. A number of women were tied to the New Left and Old Left while others were in revolt against what they professed as domineering male leadership. This diversity of knowledge led to fractiousness in leadership thus the prolonged fight for liberation. The groups began to oppose each other openly.

Personal reflection
Lack of structure in a group prolongs the achievement of objectives of the group. Leadership structure was needed in the advancement of women libration. The liberation groups consisted of many individuals with different talents, backgrounds, and predispositions. This made the realization of the objective of the group very difficult. What I could have done differently was to formulate the entire objectives of the groups that were fighting for women rights and subject them under one leadership structure.

Conclusion
Women’s Liberation Movement was an important social movement that upturned the traditions that were established on women. This movement unlocked the previously clogged occupations of women. In addition, the movement wiped out all the social injustices that existed in the society. The development of effective birth control methods, the ensuing Second World War, and the invention of laborsaving devices for home use were the turning point for women liberation. The only problem that women suffered in their quest for equality and fight against oppression in male-dominated society was lack of leadership structure. No matter how hard it was, women employed a number of strategies in the fight and they came out victors. The era of equal rights and respect for all human kind experienced in the contemporary society is a product of the long and protracted Women’s Liberation Movement.

Works Cited
Cochran, D. C. (1999). The color of freedom: Race and contemporary American liberalism. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press.
Kinnear, M. (1998). A female economy: Women’s work in a Prairie Province, 1870-1970. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Lind, A., & Brzuzy, S. (2008). Battleground: Women, gender, and sexuality. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
Shah, K, & Radhika S. (2005). Visibilising Women: Facets of History through a Gender Lens. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications.

WOMEN’S LIBERATION MOVEMENT 7

Running Head: WOMEN’S LIBERATION MOVEMENT 1

 

The Impact of Colonialism and Mandate Systems on the Domestic Politics of Iraq

Throughout history, the rise and fall of empires is inevitable. The influence each empire experiences are unique on how each one develops into countries and states. The Middle Eastern state of Iraq has experienced this rise and fall as it was formed from the Ottoman Empire. The implementation of the Mandate system and colonialism has vastly influenced the political system in Iraq. Identifying key problems with the mandate system and the aspects colonialism show the impact they have had on the political system.

The Mandate System and British influence in Iraq
The mandate system was implemented by the League of Nations and was taken on by the United Kingdom in 1920. The British wanted to reap the benefits of the land without putting much investment into Iraq. As in terms of the mandate it meant adopting a child. With the adoption of Iraq, it would of course cost money. This, along with the duty of having to foster it into a self governing state was a dilemma for the British. Like many adoptions, there are many things that one does not prepare for. The Iraqi people were already unstable, and like a child did not want to follow the rules. So, from the initiation of mandate there was already too much cost (Anghie 513). However, the British did not want to leave the Iraq people quickly because they feared that it would cost more money in the long run if nothing were done to help Iraq be stable. With all this unrest, the British were trying to show a way that Iraq was coming along well. The intention secretly was to get out from the financial reasonability from Iraq. Under the mandate the British were bound to Iraq until it was admitted to the League of Nations. In 1932 Iraq gained independence, with British presences still being felt (Ahmed par. 2).

The Impact of Colonialism and Mandate Systems on the Domestic Politics of Iraq
The aspect of colonialism can be understood through the analogy of Newton’s second law of motion that states that any action is accompanied by a reaction force. When the British colonized the Ottoman Empire that included Iraq, they were met by some resistances that later affected that the domestic politics in Iraq. The natives saw the colonialists as imperialists who were after resources, such as oil, and this view has been engraved in the minds of the Iraqis prompting them to repel them. According to Ritter and Rivers (12), the Iraqis developed the desire to be completely independent, and this notion has been carried by the Kurds sect.

There has been an uncomfortable feeling among the general population of Iraq in the view of Kurds desire for complete independence. However, such an attempt seems impossible for now, but has been one of the factors behind sectarian divisions in Iraq. The Sunni, the Shi’a, and the Kurds are not ethnically cohesive, and are in the process of being decolonized. This decolonization process has been fueled by the desire of the Kurds to be completely independent (The BBC par. 8). This desire stems from the fact that there were hurdled into a political system they are not comfortable with.

During the time of the British rule, the Ottoman Empire was subdivided leading to the creation of Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan among other states. However, these subdivisions did not create coherent countries, such as Iran or Turkey. As a result, Iraq is not a coherent country and this is the major cause of imbalances in its domestic politics. The domestic politics of Iraq are currently marred by incoherence leadership resulting from sectarian differences among the Sunni, Shia, and Kurds. Each sectarian group seeks to govern the other and this has been the major cause of the civil war in this country. The Sunnis feels that they have been excluded from the political benefits whereas the Shi’a seeks to be in power through all means (Ritter and Rivers 15). In fact, the Shi’a are currently in fear of being overthrown by the Sunni regime. The contemporary civil war in Syria is likely to see an overthrow of the Assad government and the subsequent replacement with Sunni dominated government, which will fuel fear and instability in the Shi’a led regime in Iraq.

After the World War I, the mandate system gave the British and the French colonies the power to divide the former Ottoman Empire into uncomfortable states, including Iraq. This means that the Sunnis, the Shi’a and the Kurds in Iraq were forced to share the same political platform, yet it is evident that the three cannot stay together. This implies that the mandate system brought about superficial democracy whereby the Iraqis were huddled into a newly created border. The Iraqis did not have the freedom to form a nation naturally and it seems that each three sects, including the Kurds, the Sunnis, and the Shi’a are a nation willing to govern itself (Ahmed par. 8). This implies that had the Mandate system not been created, the current Iraq would not have been formed in its current jurisdiction and ethnic composition. Each of the three leading sects would have created its own government or the three would have formed one government through mutual agreement. Nevertheless, this never happened, and thus, the domestic politics in Iraq are unstable.

Although the Mandate system that resulted in the formation of Iraq has been reputed with negative impacts, there are several positive impacts. One of the main positive impacts on the domestic politics is the creation of nationalism. Although there is a sharp division in the religion ideologies in the sectarian government in Iraq, there exists a strong Muslim ideology called Ummah that is common to all sects. The Ummah ideology can be described as a concept of nationalism that creates a holy Islamic community that treats every Islam as a member of the same holy family. In this case, it becomes easy for a Muslim to defend another Muslim in case of any foreign oppression, irrespective of sectarian affiliation. This concept was strengthened during colonial times because the colonialists were treated as enemies of the holy Islamic community (Ismael and Ismael 610). In Iraq, all the leading sects have shelved their ideological differences and united against colonial oppressions. This spirit of nationalism was evident during the time of American occupation in Iraq. According to Cole (par. 3), all the Iraqis united against the Americans occupation in Iraq, such that all Iraq leaders spoke in one language against the issue.

Colonialism and the imposition of the Mandate systems have paved way for the transformation of the political culture and the political system of Iraq. In the politics of Iraq, it is not easy to tell about its culture, that is, the political culture. The habits that are long-standing and the behavioral behaviors that are followed by people are least understood because of the unspoken assumptions that accompany them. Given that this is a patrimonial society, business and governmental institutions are based on strong kinship and personal ties, which stimulate trust and loyalty. Even though patronage is an outdated method of doing business, the Ottoman Empire embraced it just as it was during the Saddam’s rule.

Even with the promulgation of a new constitution, this patronage is still practiced in Iraq. It is therefore hard to understand how an informal system would operate within a formal structure of government and to most Americans this is hardly understood (Ritter and Rivers 59). In an attempt to comprehend the Iraq’s political culture, western assumptions and models are relied upon. Institutions, such as political parties, interest groups, parliament, and trade unions are not new in Iraq and their history dates back to Ottoman times. These institutions were established under British rule, but they later collapsed under the Ba’th and the military regimes. This paved way for traditional ways of operating, which are still practiced up-to-date, but in a transformed manner.

To clearly understand such an informal political culture requires a time and effort in any country. Saddam believed that Americans never appear to have enough of the commodity of time .This is because they seek efficient and quick results and that is why they often miss the cultural element of Iraq’s politics. With this understanding, Saddam embraced modern institutions when he came to power and this entailed a party structure with an educated cadre and Islamic ideologies. Through this he was able to form a one party state even though he relied upon his family and clan to hold power in all significant institutions (Ahmed par. 5).

Conclusion
The Ottoman Empire was among the strongest empires in the Middle East, and during its reign, its subjects had some freedom, including aligning to their own ideologies. However, after the collapse of the empire, the Mandate systems resulted in the formation of Iraq among other nations. The mandate system confined various Muslim sects into an artificial boundary in which they were not comfortable. As a result, the domestic politics of Iraq has been destabilized by ideological differences by the leading Islamic sects. At the same time, colonialism and the imposition of the Mandate systems paved way for the transformation of the political system and the political culture of Iraq. The Iraqis have revolutionized some of the political institutions introduced by the British, including interest groups, political parties, parliament, and trade unions into a system that benefits in the Iraqis. This implies that colonialism and the imposition of the Mandate systems had both positive and negative impacts on the domestic politics in Iraq.

Works Cited
Ahmed, Ali. “Iraq In The 20th Century.” 2002. Gymmuenchenstein. 28 Sept 2013 <http://www.gymmuenchenstein.ch/stalder/tables%20and%20charts/iraq.htm>.
Anghie, Antony. “Colonialism and the Birth of International Institutions: Sovereignty, Economy, and the Mandate System of the League of Nations.” The New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 34.3 (2002): 513.
Cole, Juan. “Iraq: all together against the occupation.” 2002. Le Monde diplomatique. 28 Sept 2013 <http://mondediplo.com/2004/05/03iraqinationalism>.
Ismael, Tareq and Jacquelines Ismael. “Whither Iraq? Beyond Saddam, Sanctions and Occupation.” Third World Quarterly 26.4-5 (2005): 610.
Ritter, Scott and William Rivers. War on Iraq: What Team Bush Doesn’t Want You to Know. London: Profile Books Ltd, 2002.
The BBC. “Is Britain to blame for many of the world’s problems?” 2011. The BBC. 28 Sept 2013 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12992540>.

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Lost: An American colony. By: Kramer, Linda. Historic Traveler. Feb98, Vol. 4 Issue 2, p52. 4p. 4 Color Photographs. Abstract: Explores the mystery of the settlers of Roanoke Island who disappeared some 400 years ago. Origin of the settlers; Speculations as to how they disappeared; Objects found by archeologists that would provide clues to the mystery of the settlers disappearance. INSET: The lost colony on Roanoke Island.. Reading Level (Lexile): 1100. (AN: 9712125339)
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LOST: AN AMERICAN COLONY
the settlers of roanoke island disappeared some 400 years ago. visitors to north carolina still try to solve the mystery.
ROANOKE ISLAND is protected from the sea by a series of barrier islands called the Outer Banks. Curving gracefully along North Carolina’s northeastern coast and known for lighthouses, good fishing and more than 130 miles of pristine beaches, they are one of the most popular vacation spots on the Eastern Seaboard. But the Outer Banks are more than resort lands, because they provided the setting for the earliest English settlement in the New World and one of the great enduring mysteries of American history.

In 1587, 110 men, women and children sailed from Plymouth, England, to the Outer Banks to begin a new life in a strange land. Soon after they settled on Roanoke Island, they vanished, and their disappearance has never been solved. Today visitors can wander the area where the colonists were last seen–now Fort Raleigh National Historic Site–and ponder the fate of the people who tried to make their homes here.

Their story began during the reign of England’s Queen Elizabeth I. At the time, England was challenging Spain’s and Portugal’s dominance of world exploration, and successful captains like Sir Walter Raleigh captured Elizabeth’s favor and backing as they tried to extend England’s domain across the seas, and line their own pockets in the process.
Raleigh was the queen’s favorite, and, mimicking his accent, she called young Walter by the pet name “Water.” She also dubbed him her “Oracle” and “Shepherd of the Oceans.” Elizabeth bestowed property, honors and privileges on him, named him her captain of the guard and relied upon him for advice and counsel.

Raleigh had little formal schooling, but he was fascinated by science. He designed an improved ship and was considered a master of nautical knowledge. Though the queen kept him close by her side, in 1584 she backed him in sending an exploratory expedition to the lands she’d granted him in North America, which he called “Virginia” in honor of his Virgin Queen. His men found abundant vegetation on Roanoke Island and deemed the place to be reasonably defensible.
In 1585 Raleigh dispatched a second expedition of 500 men–108 of them colonists and the rest soldiers–to establish a base of operations for attacking the Spanish treasure fleet. Under the leadership of their governor, Ralph Lane, the newcomers immediately began building a fort. They managed to antagonize the initially friendly natives and stayed less than a year, but when they returned to England they compared Roanoke to the Garden of Eden: “The earth bringeth forth all things in abundance, as in the first creation, without toil or labor. The soil is the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful and wholesome of all the world.”

Believing the hype, the third expedition set sail for Roanoke in 1587, charged with creating a permanent settlement. Seventeen women and nine children were part of this new group of 110, led by John White, a surveyor and artist who’d been a part of the second expedition and whose drawings of North American wildlife and natives were part of the lure to settlers. Each of the men was deeded a 500-acre plot as his stake in the new land.
The colonists soon learned that the glowing reports were an exaggeration, and they were ill-prepared to cope with the hardships of living on a remote island unfit for the kind of agriculture they knew. Out of necessity they began trading with the Indians, bartering trinkets for food. Reluctant to rely too heavily on the natives, they urged White to sail back across the Atlantic for additional supplies.

White was gone for three years, prevented from returning by war with Spain. He was finally able to make the voyage in 1590 aboard a privateer. He returned to Roanoke to find the houses gone and the village deserted. The colonists had left some things behind, including chests containing White’s possessions. They’d buried the chests to protect them, but someone had dug them up, and White found “my books torn from the coverts, the frames of some of my pictures and Maps rotten and spoiled with rain, and my armor almost eaten through with rust.”
Though White’s daughter Eleanor, her husband Ananias Dare and the couples’ daughter Virginia, the first English child born in North America, were among the missing, White wasn’t alarmed. Before he had left in 1587, the colonists had discussed contingency plans for leaving Roanoke. If they relocated, the settlers were to carve the name of the new location in an obvious spot. Indeed, near the village White’s men found the letters C-R-O carved in a tree trunk and the word “CROATOAN,” the name of a nearby island (now Hatteras), carved in a post. Further, if the settlers were in distress they were to carve a Maltese cross over the location name. There was no cross.

The governor didn’t go to Croatoan because the weather was bad and his ship had lost two of its anchors, necessary for navigating or “kedging” in the shallow waters close to shore. So White left. It seems a peculiar decision. Why not try to find the colonists–including his own daughter and granddaughter–and deliver crucial supplies for which the colonists had waited three years?
White took the news of his failure to find the colonists home to England and probably planned to return to search further, but no one would give him the necessary financial backing. Raleigh’s wealth had been severely taxed by the expedition, and he was busy jockeying with a new rival for the queen’s affections and overseeing England’s struggles with the Spanish. (Ironically, Raleigh was later tried as a traitor charged with secretly supporting Spain. It was never proved; his downfall and eventual execution had much more to do with palace intrigue and his failure to sufficiently kowtow to Queen Elizabeth’s successor, King James of Scotland.)

With no one to champion the colonists’ cause, White wrote that relief of the colony was left “to the merciful help of the Almighty,” according to David Stick in his book Roanoke Island. “In retrospect, the Roanoke Island venture seems to have been not much more than another speculative business deal for [Raleigh] to whom Queen Elizabeth had granted exclusive rights to much of the New World,” Stick goes on to say.
After his arrival in Jamestown in 1607, Captain John Smith made repeated efforts to find the Roanoke colonists. He gave up in 1612, convinced none of them remained.

In the years since, many have ventured theories about the colonists’ fate. Some think they did migrate to nearby Croatoan or another spot and took up permanent residence with the Indians. Others believe disease or famine wiped them out, while still others contend they attempted to return to England in a small vessel, only to to be lost at sea. Many are convinced Indians attacked and killed them; in fact, Chief Powatan at Jamestown boasted he had killed the colonists near present-day Virginia Beach. Perhaps they migrated to the Norfolk, Virginia, area and were assimilated into local tribes. In Roanoke, the Abandoned Colony, author Karen Kupperman cites reports of young Indian boys in the vicinity whose hair was “a perfect yellow” and who had a “reasonable white skin, which is a miracle among savages,” but these may have been descendants of earlier explorers who had come ashore from wrecked ships and made a new life for themselves among the natives.

LATE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, residents of Roanoke Island became tired of hearing that Jamestown and Plymouth were the first English settlements in the New World. To set the record straight, they secured state and national funding to create a permanent memorial park. Fort Raleigh National Historic Site opened to the public just before the Great Depression and is now administered by the National Park Service. The site’s centerpiece is a reconstruction of a small earthen fort. Although excavations by archeologists continue, the fort–probably the one erected by the second expedition–is the only structure whose site has been located. Perhaps signs of the rest of the settlement lie beneath the soil, waiting to be unearthed.

In 1937 the North Carolina Historical Commission wanted to attract more visitors to Roanoke and celebrate the 350th birthday of Virginia Dare. They asked Paul Green, Pulitzer Prize-winner and North Carolina native, to write a commemorative drama based on the settlers’ story. His play, The Lost Colony, combined dance, song and drama to tell Roanoke’s story. Although originally scheduled to run only one season, The Lost Colony has entertained more than three million people in the six decades since its opening. It is the United States’ first and longest-running outdoor drama.
Staged at the Waterside Theatre near the reconstructed fort, the production can leave its patrons haunted by the mystery of the inhabitants’ fate. Fred Chappell, who has directed the play for the past 10 years, says, “At night, after the show, when the park is at its darkest, I can walk from the theater to the parking lot and almost see the ghosts of those settlers drifting between the trees.”

Still another memorial to the Lost Colony is the Elizabeth II, a replica of a sixteenth-century square-rigged sailing ship similar to the one that brought the 1585 expedition to Roanoke. Docked opposite the little town of Manteo on Roanoke Island, it has its own museum, and during the summer interpreters portray colonists and mariners and describe the rigors of life aboard such a vessel.
On land, archeologists continue to search for the wooden posts of homes. They’ve recovered jar and pot fragments, guns and metal pieces that provide clues to the mystery. However, geological evidence suggests that more than half of the original island may have slipped beneath Roanoke Sound, so archeologists fight not only time but tide as they search the surrounding waters for clues.
What happened to the Lost Colony? We may never find out. But we do know that the history of English-speaking America began more than 400 years ago, not at Jamestown or Plymouth Rock, but on Roanoke Island.

The lost colony on ROANOKE ISLAND trip planner
The area code for Roanoke Island is in the process of changing from 919 to 252.
GETTING THERE From the nearest major airport, Northfolk International in Virginia, take I-64 south to Chesapeake, then Rt. 168 east to U.S. 158 east to Kitty Hawk on the Outer Banks. From there, U.S. 64 heads west to Roanoke Island. From Raleigh, N.C., take U.S. 64 east to Roanoke Island. By boat, leave the Intercoastal Waterway at MP72 at the AS marker and set a southeastherly course toward the Manns Harbor Bridge over Croatan Sound to Roanoke Island. There are several marinas on the island.

INFORMATION PLEASE The Dare County Tourist Bureau, (800) 446-6262, can help you arrange your trip. For information about Fort Raleigh State Historic Site, call 473-5772 or 473-2111. The park is open 9:00-5:00 daily except Christmas. On The Lost Colony performance nights, it remains open until 8:00. Free admission. For Raleigh is on the internet at http://www.nps.gov/fora/index.htm. The Lost Colony is performed nightly at 8:30 except Saturdays from mid-June through late August. Admission is $14.00 for adults and $7.00 for children age 11 and under. For tickets, call 473-3414 or (800) 488-5012, or write to the Lost Colony Box Office, 1409 Hwy. 64/264, Manteo, NC 27954; include a check for the amount of the tickets plus $1.00 handling charge. Ten days advance ticket purchase is recommended. Special afternoon Children’s Theatre performances are also offered; call for details. The Elizabeth II is open all year. Adult admission is $4.00, children over age five pay $2.00. For additional information, write to Roanoke Island Festival Park, One Festival Park, Manteo, NC 27954, or call 473-1144. For additional information about Sir Walter Raleigh, there’s an interesting web page at http://www.devoncc.gov.uk/ tourism/pages/woodbury/raleigh.html with many helpful links.

LODGING & DINING In Manteo, the Elizabeth Inn ($39-$110), 814 Hwy. 64, (800) 346-2466 or 473-2101, is convenient to historic sites. Tranquil House Inn ($79-$179), 405 Queen Elizabeth St., 473-1404, is in the Historic District. B&Bs include the Scarborough House ($45-$60), 323 Fernando St., 473-3849, with five guest rooms. The White Doe Inn ($115-$185), 319 Sir Walter Raleigh St., (800) 473-6091 or 473-9851, has seven rooms. Additional information about all these accomodations can be found on the internet at http://www.insiders.com/outerbanks/ quick-accomodations.htm. For camping, there’s Cypress Cove, 818 Hwy. 64, 473-5231, open all year. (All rates are subject to change).
The following dining choices are all in Manteo. The Weeping Radish, U.S. 64, 473-1157, is a brewpub that offers German-style food in a causal atmosphere. The Elizabethan Inn’s Restaurant, U.S. 64/264, 473-2101, is a local seafood favorite. Clara’s Seafood Grille in the waterfront shops, phone 473-1727, is another seafood choice. At the Tranquil House (above) you’ll find another restaurant, 1587, phone 473-1587.

OTHER THINGS TO SEE & DO The Garden Club of North Carolina created the Elizabethan Gardens on the grounds of Fort Raleigh to present the gardens on the estates of the wealthiest backers of the colony. On 10 tranquil acres planted with flowers, herbs and native trees and shrubs along Roanoke Sound, walking trails wander past sunken gardens, fountains and statuary. Open dialy 9:00-8:00 in the summer, 9:00-5:00 the rest of the year. Admission $3.00 for adults, $1.00 for ages 12-17, children 11 and under admitted free with parent. Phone 473-3234.
The Roanoke Voyages Corridor, the island’s seven-mile drive along Route 64/264, is lined with live oak, crepe myttle, dogwood and yaupon. Beside it runs a path for biking, rollerblading, jogging and strolling.

At the turn of the century, the town of Manteo at the center of the island was a hub of commerce with a single dry goods store and a crab plant. Today, this quaint waterside village still has traces of early Elizabethan architecture. Weathered boardwalks along the bustling waterfront take visitors to quaint shops and restaurants serving heaping platters of fresh seafood.
MAP: Roanoke Island
PHOTOS (COLOR): The Elizabeth II lies at anchor opposite Manteo on Roanoke Island. She’s similar to the ship that brought Raleigh’s second expedition to the New World. Above right: In the Fort Raleigh visitor center, a DeBrys engraving shows an early rendition of the island and its surrounding.
PHOTO (COLOR): Top: Earthworks trace outline of the fort, a recreation of the one that was probably built by the 1585 expedition.
Above: A sculptor’s conception of Virginia Dare as an adult raised among natives.
Right: For six decades actors have portrayed the story of the lost colonists at Fort Raleigh’s theater.
~~~~~~~~
by Linda Kramer
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Greek Defining Moment: Peloponnesian war

Thucydides says that Peloponnesian war was the defining moment in the history of the Greece. The Peloponnesian war was bloody conflict between the Spartans and the Athens that led to a golden age of the Athens. The war lasted about 27 years, between 431B.C and 404 B.C and the war was motivated by Spartans view that Athens were becoming too powerful. The Athens Empire had taken over many Greek city-states including the Delian league that had been formed to defend Greece against Persia invasions. Therefore, the Spartans demanded that Athens to let go all the city-states under its control or they will wage war with the Peloponnesian. Athens did not give in to the demands and that started the Peloponnesian war.

One of the reasons why many historians believe that Peloponnesian war was the most important event in the history of Greece is that it ended the peace treaty that had lasted thirty years. Athens, sea power, and Spartan, land power had entered into a treaty in 446/5 that had divided Greek into two. This meant that the allies of one side had to pledge allegiance to that side. However, the neutral power could take any side that they liked. The Athens Empire was becoming more powerful, especially after it took Delian league under its control. Delian league had been formed to protect Greece from Persian invasion. In the beginning, Athens had an upper hand but they lost the battle. The Spartans won most of the battles of the Peloponnesian war. Therefore, the Peloponnesian war put Greece under one leadership of the Spartan since the treaty that had divided Greece into two ended with the war.

Another reason that makes Peloponnesian war an important event in Greece history is that the war was between Spartans and Athens who had worked together to defeat the Persians. In addition, the war was won by the less likely party, the Spartans. In 486 B.C, Sparta aided Athens to defeat the Persians who had invaded them. Athens had a powerful military navy, had a democratic system and an innovative leadership. On the other, hand Spartan was a land power that adhered to traditions and had a military system of government. However, Spartans were able to defeat the Athens both in land and in their stronghold, the sea. The Athens were destroyed completely, their fleet and their army and in 404 B.C they surrendered to Spartans. The Spartans established an oligarchy in Athens called the Thirty.

Unlike the war with Persians, an external force, Peloponnesian war was an internal supremacy battle inside Greece. This war lead to end of democracy in Athens and it can be concluded that Greece growth of democracy stalled for thirty years during due to this war. This makes it an important for the history of Greece. When Athens rule collapsed, it collapsed with its democracy and Spartans established an oligarchy. Democracy was later restored when the Spartan rule was defeated. During the Peloponnesian war, the Persians were financing the Spartan’s fleet, helping them to defeat the Athens. It is worth noting that the Spartans had helped the Athens defeat the Persians. Later the Persian helped The Athens regain it power after 30 years under the Spartans. Therefore, there is likelihood that the Persians were working on weakening the powers inside Greece in case they wanted to invade them.

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