Yosemite National Park

Yosemite National Park is situated in California State, and is the U.S. third oldest park. The park was established in 1890 with an aim of preserving unique resources that amazed many tourists. Yosemite National Park is endowed with magnificent geological features like waterfalls, cliffs, clear streams, deep valleys, ancient giant sequoias, and a huge wilderness area. The park supports varieties of animals and plants due to its expansive habitat block. Massive destruction of Giant Sequoia and overgrazing in meadows caused John Muir, a naturalist and environmentalist, to fight for protection of the park through an Act of Congress.

In 1890, Yosemite area was declared National Park, and California State took control of the park. The state delegated the power of control to 4th Cavalry of the U.S. Army Troop, who constructed a camp in the park. Muir managed to compel the then president to sign a bill that would allow the federal government to assume full control of the park.

The two major geological phenomena that attract attention of many tourists in Yosemite National Park are the Yosemite Valley and Half Dome. According to Hamilton, it is the Yosemite Valley that makes the park is very famous (6). Yosemite Valley, or ‘classic’ glacial valley, is a valley formed by glacier in the western side of Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. Steep walls and an even floor portrayed the Yosemite Valley. Its formation started when alpine glaciers trudged through a canyon in the Merced River. The early glaciers descended to top the V-shaped valley, deepening and shaping it into a U-shaped basin. In this process, hanging valleys and waterfall were formed. Glacial till and rock sediments filled a deep excavation formed by early glaciers, to form a flat valley bottom that people witness even today. Figure 1 below shows tourists enjoying the scenery of Yosemite Valley.

Figure 1: Yosemite Valley
Half Dome is another critical feature in Yosemite National Park, which rises above Yosemite Valley to form a global icon. Half Dome emerged from an outcropping of magma, which solidified under the ground to create huge granites bodies. Later, the top rock eroded, revealing the intrusive granite, which eventually rose above the ground during mountain-building era that created the contemporary Sierra Nevada. Due to the toughness of the Sierra core, volcanic rocks around it scattered throughout the range leaving the Half Dome erected above other features (Ken par. 3). Pleistocene glaciers descended downward though Sierra river drainages, scrapping and shaping canyons into wide, U-shaped valleys. Sherwin glacier accomplished most of the work, but Half Dome remained above the surface of the ice. Looking back in the history of formation of continents, the vertical movement caused some regions to rise above others. The uplift of Yosemite region was because of this movement. I believe that glaciations process, erosion, and geomorphic responses, have played a chief role in creation of phenomenon features in Yosemite area. Figure 2 below illustrates Half Dome.

Figure 2: Half Dome
Controversy
There was a disagreement between Josiah Whitney, a qualified geologist, and John Muir, an environmentalist, over how Yosemite Valley was formed. Whitney claimed that the valley was formed through faulting. Whitney felt that a large block fell between two faults forming the valley. Muir, while travelling to Alaska, experienced a first-hand glacier, which made him to conclude that glaciers shaped Yosemite Valley. However, a Geological Survey from the U.S, led by Francois Matthes and Frank Calkins carried out a study at Yosemite area, and their findings concluded that Yosemite Valley was actually modified by a sequence of glaciers (Gunther, par. 4). Many articles that I have personally read concerning Yosemite Valley, and other phenomenon features in Yosemite National Park, indicate that snow melting, experienced millions of years ago influenced the formation of valleys and waterfalls in Yosemite area.

Works Cited
Gunther, Richard L. “Yosemite Valley: A Glacier-Carved Jewel.” Quaternary Geology (November 2004). Web 18 July 2013. http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/student/gunther2/yosemite.html
Hamilton, John. Yosemite National Park. Edina, Minn: Abdo Pub, 2005. Internet resource. http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=PAB_WrfvihEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Yosemite+National+Park&hl=en&sa=X&ei=w6HnUbfzKMX20gWQzYDABA&redir_esc=y
Ken. “How Half Dome Formed.” Yosemite’s Scenic Wonders Vacation Rentals, June 2013. Web. 18 July 2013. http://www.scenicwonders.com/how-half-dome-formed/

Surname 5

 

Land Spreading During an Earthquake

Earthquakes
Earthquakes are movements along the plate margins whereby, rocks and blocks can move past, towards and further away from other plates and rocks resulting to unsmooth and frictional activities. These activities can also result to the plates getting stuck on each other. As a result, pressure increases until the plates can no longer contain it thus releasing pressure in the air in form of rock particles and energy. These movements originating from a point of focus are referred to as earthquakes while energy waves from the focal point called the epicenter move directly towards the earth’s surface. Although much research has been conducted by scientists and concerned parties like civil engineers, the stage at which science has currently reached does not permit the prediction of an earthquake. Therefore, earthquakes are only felt once they occur with mitigation measures undertaken after.

Scientists record earthquake magnitudes by the use of Richter scale. They use these measurements to determine the amount of damage, losses and destructions caused. A geologic fault refers to a fracture on the ground that leads to loss of cohesion between plate tectonics. These plates are fractured, broken as they are fragile and displaced due to the pressure, strain and stress. Ductile movements of rocks found under the earth’s crust result to breakages along the faults and flowing of rocks combined with restrained energy. There are several types of faults including, fault surfaces, normal faults, reverse faults and strike slip faults according to SAS (2005, p.5).

Fault surfaces are found along the rocks located underground. These faults move past, over or under other rocks. As a result, rocks are stuck along their fault surfaces resulting to restrained energy levels. Once these rocks break releasing energy, an earthquake occurs and the destruction is dependent on the Richter scale magnitude. Therefore, tension is the force that attracts these rocks towards each other; compression squeezes them together while shear stress results to the rocks sliding past other rocks. Normal faults occur when rocks and blocks under the earth’s crust pull away from each other due to tension. Some mountains and hills like Tetons, Basin and the Range Province are a creation of the tension between rocks resulting to fault block establishments. When rocks and blocks collide due to compressions, they lead to reverse faults.

Therefore, reverse faults are as a result of collisions between continents creating prevalent features and folding of rocks. When two rocks and blocks move horizontally in opposite directions, they result to strike slip faults. Based on the direction of their movements, they can result to either left lateral or right lateral offsets. From these movements, it is clear that earthquakes are shaking movements caused by seismic waves which are further caused by breakage of rocks, collisions and restrained pressure and energy amounts (SAS 21).

Land Spreading
Earthquakes cause land spreading, folding of rocks, liquefaction, ground subsidence and lateral spreading which translate to massive destruction of commercial and residential lands, infrastructures and dwellings in form of buildings. Historical earthquakes magnitudes, model tests and multiple research studies have failed to answer how soil piling, land spreading and liquefied soil are affected by seismic waves. However, the magnitude of an earthquake determines how the land deformations will occur. Therefore, the earthquake strength, land stiffness, occurrence of seismic waves and shaking of the earth crust may result to land spreading during and/or after an earthquake occurs (Tonkin 8).

There are several forms of land spreading that result from an earthquake. Monotonic pushover refers to lateral spread of the land which mainly occurs during an earthquake. This form of land spreading is dependant on the relativity of land displacements due to movements of the soil on a free field. However, when an earthquake occurs accompanied with little pressure and energy, the depth over which the ground is pushed from the epicenter covers a short distance. As a result, the soil movements are felt on larger area resulting to lateral spreading of soil on large field of land. There are other forms of land spreading that occur when bridges and other buildings constructed with abutments and joint expansions collapse upon being hit by seismic waves.

Although they result to destruction of raw materials, buildings, loss of lives and damage of properties, they also result to soil displacements. When the abutments and the materials used in their construction land on a soil surface, the earth’s crust responds differently depending on the magnitude and the stiffness of the land. As a result, the spreading of land can be due to deformations and pilings which can occur in form of single or group soils spreading on a field (Ross, Bruce, Scott, Priyanshu, and Dongdong 15).

Therefore, earthquakes have led to the discovery of the three earth layers namely, the crust, core and mantle. Land spreading depends on the earthquake scale readings and their effects on either of the layers whereby; the magnitude relates to the amount of energy released on the land and the measure of destruction witnessed. Seismogram measures the magnitude, height and amplitude of the seismic waves while Seismic Moment is used to represent the amount of energy released when an earthquake occurs. On a Richter’s scale, a three to five earthquake magnitude does not cause massive land spreading, deformations, destructions and damages. However, a magnitude reading between five and twelve causes total destruction and deformations of land surfaces (Tonkin 10).

Civil engineering
Civil engineers are people concerned with community development, services and programs aimed at improving the society through proper planning of designs constructed to operate and function as facilities. Therefore, civil engineers can be termed as solutions to the problems and challenges a society faces such as; urbanization, community development, pollution, water supply, energy production and supply and traffic congestion (SCCC 6). Earthquakes occurring in a community result to destruction, damages and losses of structures, buildings, parks, bridges, offshore and space platforms as well as land spreading. These structures are built using steel, timber, concrete, plastic and other exotic raw materials and resources available to civil engineers. Therefore, earthquakes destroy water sources, transportation, urbanization plans, built infrastructures, communication systems, energy production and globalization if the earthquake magnitude is on a larger magnitude scale. American Society of Civil engineers was therefore established in 1852 with the main objective being, improving the living standards and quality of American infrastructures affected by earthquakes (SCCC 9).

Summary
Earthquakes are destructive movements on the land surface that affect the soil texture, composition and displacement patterns. An earthquake with a high magnitude reading on a Richter scale will translate to massive destruction of the soil patterns. More so, soil compositions such as minerals, nutrients, organic matter, chemicals and living organisms are also destroyed, imbalanced and living organisms killed. Although predicting an earthquake is practically and scientifically impossible, in order to eliminate these effects, the positive forms of land spreading such as fertilization, application of wastes on commercial land and management of soil texture can minimize the negative effects of earthquakes on the land surface.

Work Cited
Ross, Boulanger, Bruce, Kutter, Scott, Brandenberg, Priyanshu, Singh, and Dongdong, Chang, Pile Foundations in Liquefied and laterally Spreading Ground during Earthquakes: Centrifuge Experiments & Analyses, 2003. Retrieved on 24th July 2013 from: http://nees.ucdavis.edu/publications/ucdcgm0301.pdf
Science Academic Standards (SAS), Earthquakes and Seismic Waves, 2005. Retrieved on 24th July 2013 from: ftp://ftpdata.dnr.sc.gov/geology/Education/PDF/Earthquakes.pdf
Sloan Career Cornerstone Centre (SCCC), Civil Engineering Overview: The Field – Preparation – Day in the Life – Specialization – Earnings – Employment – Career Path Forecast – Professional Organization, 2012. Retrieved on 24th July 2013 from: http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/civil/civileng.pdf
Tonkin Taylor, Liquefaction Vulnerability Study, 2013. Retrieved on 24th July 2013 from: http://www.eqc.govt.nz/sites/public_files/documents/liquefaction-vulnerability-study-final.pdf

Surname Here 2

 

Ancestor Veneration in Asia: Geology and the regions of the world

Introduction
Ancestor can be defined as the place of origin of an individual who on a descent line when compared to the grandparents, that individual is termed as more remote. Veneration on the other hand is awe, admiration and respect inspired by self-esteem, self respect, dedication, talent, wisdom and dignity. Therefore, when the two are combined, ancestral veneration is defined as the belief of dead members of a family having the capacity to manipulate how the rest living family members will live their future through their spirits.

Geology is the study of the earth surface, compositions and elements found in it, how and why it consistently changes its characters. The people who study these facts are referred to as geologists. They have for a long time been involved in the inquiry or origin of the planet, evolving processes, chemical and physical properties of fuels, minerals, rocks and crusts found on the earth planet, earthquakes, human adaptations to natural disasters like floods, volcanic eruptions and landslides.

Several authors have done their best to discover if geology is a science. Ernest Rutherford and Lord Kelvin for example asserted that geology cannot be science because while science can be quantified geology cannot. They both defined science as a blend of study of subjects which are then combined with nature, testing processes and procedures and results gained form hypothesis. They therefore termed geology as a natural history and geologists as history collectors. However, geologists believe that geology is a science as it involves fossil records, theories, hypothesis, evidence in historical science and all of them are combined together to enhance or discover geology.

Everything found on the earth surface is connected and interlinked to all activities that take place in the oceans, atmosphere, in animals and plants and land. It is from the planet that human beings acquire the air they breathe, water they drink, energy they require and other materials like homes, offices, cloths and food. Geologists predict that the evolving process in the earth planet will be responsible for more human population in the future. They therefore have cautioned that in order to sustain a huge population, current human activities need to be well researched so as to preserve and maintain the earth surface. Individuals need to learn better and safe ways of applying resources originating from the earth surface, maintain the environment and carry out safe processes in a manner that appreciates the earth planet.

American geological institute with the help of other research institutes have all agreed that the earth surface as a science requires more studying and inclusion in the school course work. This will facilitate all individuals in the planet to understand it because it is only through learning that the future can be bright. Earth surface remains a diverse and complex discussion and area of research because of several geological processes that continue to occur. There are however four main geological processes on the earth’s surface that geologist term as the main processes that helped in formation of planet earth. These processes comprise volcanism, tectonism, gradation, and cratering impacts.

Volcanism refers to the holistic process of material eruption from underneath to the earth surface. These materials are usually molten and referred as magma. Magma is a combination of elements such as gases and melted rocks and therefore, they are mostly liquid in nature with rocky particles. Tectonisms are rock movements where they fracture, fold or fault. People around the world mainly experience tectonism through earthquakes. Both tectonism and volcanic eruptions are geological processes and earth activities that are influenced by planet activities occurring internally. Gradation is a geological process that involves erosions, earth surface materials being deposited anywhere on the surface alongside other material movements. Gradation is mainly manifested through ice, wind, running or flowing water and gravity.

There are some significant controlling factors that affect and influences gradation. These are satellites and the planet’s surface environment which are further controlled by temperatures, gravity and atmosphere. The very last geological progression is the earth cratering. This process is usually as a result of material impacting on the earth surface when they fall or land. Examples of the materials include comets and meteoroids both of which originate from space and magma. Therefore, these four geological processes are responsible for the history geologists continue to unravel on the planet earth’s surface. Just like earth, other planets experience their own and unique geological processes. Extent of each processes vary due to different roles played by each process, different operations and influential factors like satellites.

Geological events on planet earth’s surface
As earlier stated, there are four major geological processes experienced on planet earth. Volcanic eruptions and tectonics or earthquakes of the four processes are the two largest in scale and magnitude though they do not last for a long period of time. This means that they result in huge disruptions on a large area on the earth surface but their impacts are felt for a short period of time. This however does not signify that they cannot endure for a long time. When they do, they can result to huge landforms like formation of ocean basins, islands, mountains and plains. Focusing on cratering impacts, this process lasts for a short period of time and its impact frequencies when compared to the life span of a human being are very low. Although this process was very common in early times of earth formation, there are currently few objects in the earth space that can cause cratering impacts. Gradation unlike the other geological processes does not have a specific impact scale, frequency or time frame.

This process can be felt at any scale even when mountains are eroding or sand grains grinding in water streams. It can happen on a time frame as fast as a second or even last for centuries and occasionally longer. All geological progressions have something widespread in common on the earth’s surface. They are responsible for different, diverse and very distinctive surface features and landforms. Some of the current landforms available on earth include conical hills which more than often possess summit craters and steeps. Just like earth, all other planets also have atmosphere though compositions, elements and present gases differ and vary.

There are a number of reasons for the different atmospheres in different planets as given by geologists and researchers. It is palpable that planets possess diverse surface gravity. Surface gravity is responsible for the force that ensures atmosphere is held down in all planets. Jupiter is considered as the planet with the biggest gravitational force. This implies that in planet Jupiter, light gases such as helium and hydrogen which is actually the lightest gas on the periodic table are easily retained after they escape from other planets which have lower gravity force. A second rationale is the difference in detachment from the sun to each of all the existing planets.

The distance is dependable in influencing the levels of energy found in a planet. Energy present in each planet is responsible for heating available atmospheric gases on planet earth depending on escape velocity in each planet and speed gas molecules are able to outpace gravitational force. Titan, Triton and Pluto are the top three planets capable of retaining their atmospheres although they possess low gravitational forces. Each planet has diverse geological processes, chemical processes and history. Compositions found in the atmosphere are mainly due to chemical elements, processes, and temperature differences during formation period of a planet, escape of a planet’s interior gases and atmospheric pressures. The compositions on planet earth atmosphere are influenced by products and by-products produced by the life sustained on the earth’s surface through the ecosystem services. Although planets atmospheres differ, they are vital and crucial in the formation process of a planet because they determine the shape to be taken by each planet.

Geologists therefore encourage studying of earth’s surface, how wind is responsible for movement of particles from one earth surface to another, how erosions leave behind particles deposited on earth surface, how frosting and precipitation can either directly or indirectly leave marks on earth’s surface and how climatic changes greatly influence a planets geological history and ecosystem sustenance.

Planet surfaces
There are eight planets in existence and which forms the solar system. Based on their detachment from the sun, they include; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Each of the planets is unique due to different and diverse geological processes. Mars for example has unique landforms which were due to running water that resulted to formation of new landforms in that shape. This was despite the fact that liquids found in planet Mars like water are geologically stated to be unstable. Geologists have therefore made conclusions that Mars was a wet planet in its early formation process but due to climatic changes, it evolved to be a cold desert which is today termed as a frozen desert.

From gathered satellite evidences, Mars reveals presence of icy materials which flow in the planet extensively despite the moon being a solid frozen particle. Although the moon is not a planet, in geological studies, it is grouped together with Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars to form terrestrial planets. Among these planets, Mars and Earth are closely related as they depict almost similar planet characteristics and geological processes. Just like the earth surface, neither do Mars experience plate tectonism. However, it does have tectonic landforms similar to the Earths such as rift zones and gradation landforms. Water liquid found in Mars is neither as stable as that found on Earth nor cratering impacts patent.

Geological features for other planets according to geological satellites reveal presence of rocks, ice and sometimes methane especially in planets further away from the sun. Just like the Earth, there are other planets which experience volcanic eruptions or tectonic movements or both. Its has been revealed that gradations are not evident in outer planets but cratering impacts can be assumed to occur due to massive deposition and redistribution of materials in their individual surfaces. Geological maps have evolved from times they were used to show political and cultural divisions, natural features and historical proceedings to how they are currently used to explore the solar system.

Geologists now use them to indicate how rocks are deposited and redistributed among planets and the landforms, faults and structures visible from satellite images. In construction of geological maps geologists require to capture satellite images, gather data from remote sensor data collectors and aerial photographs. Except the moon which has been visited by geologists who were able to gather data directly from the field, in order to collect data from other planets, they require to apply geological principles in their studies and researches.

Geologist’s works, studies and researches therefore reveal that geological processes on the earth surface are responsible for hosting, supporting, monitoring and maintaining all life found in this world. It is through geology that the world is able to access and afford water, mineral resources, energy, clean atmospheric air and other resources that a society and the world needs in order to survive and sustain life. World population should seek for answers from geological studies on the origins of these resources, how they were formed, where they were deposited or located, how animal and plant life has evolved over historical periods, effects of climatic changes, the natural disasters the world deals with often and how nutrients or toxic materials flow, deposit and are distributed around the world. It is through a study of geological frameworks that the world will be capable to utilize its resources, improve the quality of the environment and reduce the hazards around it.

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) through research presented six goals that the world need to combine with strategic plans, products and actions in order to strengthen geological requirements. The goals included a characterized and well interpreted geological history of the earth for people around the world to better understand it. To understand climatic changes and anticipate the influence they will have on the ecosystem service. To enumerate the earth’s natural resources within vicinity of the world and understand their availability. Enhance community’s resilience around the world to environmental hazards. Apply technology, effective and efficient practices when analyzing and transferring geological data and finally, formulate a flexible but diverse force of labor in the future. These goals were to enhance geological power for people around the world to understand geological processes and how they are linked to biological and physical process around the world and through that, people can foretell the future and develop models and systems that can handle and sustain a future world.

Conclusion
It is through a combination of chemical and physical processes together with ecosystems interactions in the surface of the earth that geologist are able to study geology, history of earth’s land use, climate changes and other ecosystems. The current trends in ecosystem services are evolving and being modified by both natural and human stressing factors among other distresses such as adverse climate changes, rise of sea levels, species getting extinct, deforestation and desertification.

If the trend is maintained, there are possible and profound challenges the world is bound to face. People will be incapable to sustain their lives, security will be reduced, poverty levels will increase and climatic changes will be unfavorable to support human life. Geologist therefore need to expand their studies and researches in order to come up with better monitoring policies and ways people around the world can adapt as a way of maintain and preserving ecosystems in a changing planet earth surface.

Work Cited
Carr, M.H., Saunders, R.S., Strom, R.G., and Wilhelms, D.E., The Geology of the Terrestrial Planets, Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1984,317 pp.
Francis, Peter. The Planets, New York: Penguin Books, 1981, 411 pp
Guest, J.E. Planetary Geology, London: David and Charles (Publ.), 1979, 208 pp
Linda C.S. Gundersen, Jayne Belnap, Martin Goldhaber, Arthur Goldstein, Peter J. Haeussler, S.E. Ingebritsen, John W. Jones, Geoffrey S. Plumlee, E. Robert Thieler, Robert S. Thompson, and Judith M. Back Science for a changing world, (USGS), Geology for a changing world 2010-2020, implementing the U.S geological Survey science Strategy, 2011: Retrieved on 8th May 2013 from http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1369/pdf/circular1369_final.pdf
Murray, B., Malin, M.C., and Greeley. Earthlike Planets: Surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars, San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1981,387 pp.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Planetary Geology, 1998: Retrieved on 10th May 2013 from http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/58263main_Planetary.Geology.pdf
Robert H. Dott, Jr., What is Unique about Geological Reasoning, Madison, University of Wisconsin, 1998, Retrieved on 8th May 2013 from http://earth.unh.edu/esci530/docs/geological_reasoning.pdf
Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O., Merrill, R. B., Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1976, 1301 pp.

 Murray, B., Malin, M.C., and Greeley. Earthlike Planets: Surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars, (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1981)
 Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O., Merrill, R. B., Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1976)
 Francis, Peter. The Planets, (New York: Penguin Books, 1981)
 Murray, B., Malin, M.C., and Greeley. Earthlike Planets: Surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars, (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1981)
 Carr, M.H., Saunders, R.S., Strom, R.G., and Wilhelms, D.E., The Geology of the Terrestrial Planets, (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1984)
 Francis, Peter. The Planets, (New York: Penguin Books, 1981)
 Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O., Merrill, R. B., Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1976)
 Francis, Peter. The Planets, (New York: Penguin Books, 1981)
 Guest, J.E. Planetary Geology, (London: David and Charles (Publ.), 1979)
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), (Planetary Geology, 1998)
 Francis, Peter. The Planets, (New York: Penguin Books, 1981)
 Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O., Merrill, R. B., Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1976)
 Murray, B., Malin, M.C., and Greeley. Earthlike Planets: Surfaces of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars, (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1981)
 Robert H. Dott, Jr., What is Unique about Geological Reasoning, (Madison, University of Wisconsin, 1998)
 Roddy, D. J., Pepin, R. O., Merrill, R. B., Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1976)

10

 

Lander project

Introduction
Man has in various times looked for other places apart from the earth where he can harbor but unfortunately his efforts have been frustrated by various factors including the lack of atmospheric pressure in the space, lack of oxygen on other parts of the space, inadaptable climatic conditions that are sometimes characterized by extreme coldness or hotness and even in other situations like Jupiter and Pluto happens to be too far from the earth to the extent that these places becomes inhabitable.

Despite all these limitations, there are other places in the space like on the moon and to some extent in mars and Jupiter where life can be harbored could there be oxygen and atmospheric pressure similar or that which is near to that found on planet earth. Scientists have made numerous attempts to find a conducive place where living things can thrive and the research has not ended. In the following proposal, we will try to venture and land on one of the moon of planet Jupiter and explore on the possible ways in which life can thrive in the space. We will draw significantly on past research done on these place and others so that we may have a consistent conclusion on the mission to planet Jupiter. On the moon, we will perform various tests including whether the place is potential to farming, minerals, water bodies and other form of living scope in the moon. We will also carry some living things to help in the survey.

Science aims and strategy
Proposal justification
Jupiter is a gas giant that consists of ninety percent hydrogen deposits and 9.99 % of helium with the remaining elements being traces of other gases. The state of the planet is so gaseous and to land there the unmanned landing will be expected to land from the places where the atmospheric pressure is about one bar. This is as a result of the atmospheric pressure balancing that of the moon and of the earth at 1bar. Research done has indicated that may be Jupiter has a landing base or a rocky gaseous environment composed of many matters. Being habitable therefore, unmanned landing would be helpful to help gain access of the conditions found in Jupiter.

The aim of this proposal
There are many reasons why one would like to ventures in Jupiter but for this case we will be trying to measure the planets atmospheric pressures, the atmosphere itself and find out if there is any water on the planet or even if there is any existence of minerals from the planet’s surface. We will also be trying to get samples of the soil found on planet Jupiter with the aim of trying to verify whether it is cultivatable.

Unmanned landing missions
There are several reasons why the mission to the moon ought to be done using the unmanned landings. One reason is because there is cost implication. It should be noted that the costs expected to undertake a manned landing is too expensive. History has indicated that the first landing on the moon was during the cold war and was necessitated by the presence of patriotism from the American who contributed towards the mission. The second reason why manned landing can’t be undertaken is the fact that there is imminent danger of doing so. As it was during the NASA times, so it may be even today, lives may be lost and technological setbacks. The final reason to explain why unmanned landing would be the most effective is the fact that technology has advanced and technological undertakings can be done instead of risking human life. There is the GPRS the availability of advanced communication devices and other devices can be used to give feedback from moon.

Past explorations on Jupiter
The current explanation of the solar system can be credited to early space missions that were carried out by NASA in the years of 1970. As they pioneered other spaces, they also had unmanned landing in Jupiter. The Researchers were trying to find out if they could be able to penetrate the asteroid belt that is between mars and Jupiter. The researchers and explorers wanted to ascertain whether human extraterrestrial living could thrive the harsh conditions on Jupiter. From their journey, they were able to indicate that indeed Jupiter had several moons and Ganymede was the largest of tem having light and dark materials.

In 1979, Capaccio (2010, p. 44-45) another voyage to the moon was carried out and brought out the information on how Jupiter really in, that is violent, harsh atmosphere the winds were flying fast like hurricanes. This mission also revealed that Pluto has plasma of electrically charged gas because of the volcanoes. This voyage also showed that Jupiter had geological activities with ridges and terrains which were smooth. The fourth moon named Callisto was broody and dark. The latest research on Jupiter was presented by Galileo in 1995 which explored the planet for six years. The spaceship that Galileo had made was able to rotate Jupiter times and could therefore be able to report better than the other. The main aim of Galileo mission was to find out the aspects of Jupiter in terms of its atmosphere, the satellites and the magnetosphere.

Facts suggesting that Jupiter’s moon Europa could be habitable
Jupiter’s Europa moon can be habitable because of the presence of the features that comprises it. One, the Europa moon planet has an ocean and has a relative thin ice and there are capabilities of oxidants existence on Europa’s surface. According to Richard Greenberg the size of the Europa’s moon is similar to the earths and its surface has a frozen crust of water. The presence of combined tidal processes, the availability of warm waters and the fact that the place is periodically exposed to the sun warrants life. And also encourages evolution. This means that the place is cordial to life. Other fact describing habitability of the place is the liquid water. This indicates the presence of enough heat in the place to transform the ice nature to liquid water.

Greenberg continues to explain that the presence of live is attributed by the tides which regulates the temperature and explains the chaotic moons place and the ridges on moon. Though the place needs those who wish to habit the place to adapt, various factors ought to be combined to produce a stable but a changing environment on the moon.
What is the probability of occurrence of ancient or extant life?
Finding life in another planet is rare. This is because for there to be an environment supporting life, there must have the characteristics necessary to support life and the basics of it lies in the presence of air, more precisely oxygen and hydrogen. Since these features are found on moon, then it is quite a fact then that the probability of having a salient feature indicating life is quite significant. Kasting (2010, p. 33) indicates that the presence of liquid water can also help in the explanation that salient features may exist.

Geology
The overall moons geology
The moon can be seen as a geologic Rosetta stone that is to say that it is an airless and also without water and has not been affected by erosion. It has evident of early scientific views that occurred in the solar system and those that explain the evolution of the earth. It has two hemispheres which have asymmetrical properties. The near side faces the sun and is divided into two parts. One side that has light and is called lunar highlands. The other dark areas are



Called Maria (singular mare), see figure above). Maria happens to be in the altitude. According to Bhagwat (p. 2009, 9) there are four largest moons in Jupiter that shows signs of terrestrial planets.
The far side doesn’t receive light and is much darker and one can see it from earth and is quite unique from the near side. It has a lot of defects from the actions of the meteors (see below figure).

There are very many craters on moon, a description that explain its age as the more the craters on the moon, the older that side is. This therefore illustrate why Maria features happens to be younger than the highlands. Research has indicated that the oldest surfaces in the solar system are characterized by the presence of maximum clattering density. The moon is generally covered with a layer of progressing powdery type of soil that has spread rocks called regolith that have been made by the actions of the meteors on crater. The rocks on Jupiter’s moon are igneous. Worth to note is the fact that Maria features are relatively low, smooth and dark whereas highland is rugged and heavily cratered.

The general geology of the Europa moon
Europa was first discovered in 1610 and it happens to be smaller than the earth’s moon. It composed made up of silicate rocks and also iron core. Bagenal (2006, p. 525). The place has oxygen and has cracks and streaks and there is infrequent clattering. There is an ocean or sea as its smooth surface depicts and has the capability of supporting extraterrestrial life. Jupiter’s Europa moon is said to have plate tectonic activities. It is believed that Europa consists of a magnetic field which explains the occurrence of underlying subsurface conductive layer. This layer is composed of salty water from the low attitude and topography. Europa’s interior is covered up with ice. Bagenal (2006, p. 333-349). (See the below diagram)

(Model of Europe’s interior showing a solid ice crust over a layer of liquid water or soft ice, a silicate mantle and a metallic core.)

The type of site and evidence for its interpretation as such
The sites likely to be visited incorporate the sea area, the rugged landscaped areas. The main reason why such areas should be visited is because to verify habitability of a place, the soil nature or the rocky nature of the place would help identify whether there is a possibility of life existence. The waters also would help indicate whether there is enough temperature to transform the ice into water.
The nature of expected evidence for life in the moon would be done using both chemical and morphological experiments.

Logistics
Better and sustainable space exploration would require adequate preparations. The aim of the exploration on the surface of moon Jupiter will be to focus on the possible habitation of the area. The requirements would includes, propellants and fuels, the carriers, and even the space shuttle.
Planned landing missions
The main reason for planning a landing on the moon would be to get ideas on the issues regarding the topography of the place and the chemical compositions that are capable of supporting life.

Topography of Europa moon
The topography of Europa is characterized by few craters, it is smooth and bright and also relatively young. The observed icy shell of Jupiter’s moon is spotty characterized by crisscrossing features on the surfaces commonly termed as lineae. On the surface of the moon, there are also features like domes the albedo and also surface ridges.
Engineering requirements/landing access
The engineering requirements for the space landing will include the making of a Lander which will require solar panels, fuel tanks, truncated cone, the control thrusters and some crushable footpad among other requirements. There will also be radar that ought to be made of aluminum and also carbon

The landing access and the nature of access
Upon approaching the target, the spacecraft will approach the moon with a high speed and will be ruggedized so that it can withstand the hard landing. The use of the landing system technology would enable help the spacecraft land safely in the regions that have rocks. Once the landing has been successful, there will be the use of automatic cameras that will be used to relay information to earth.
Sampling and Detection Techniques
Samples would generally be collected using the special screening tools and surface sensors to record and transmit every proceeding while on moon. There will be robots that will be computer generated that will be capable of performing experiments same as human would when on earth. The nature of experiment would be to do a chemical experimentation of the soil particles on moo to determine whether it is capable of harboring life.

References
Bagenal, f., Dowling, T. E., & Mckinnon, w. B. (2006). Jupiter: the planet, satellites and
magnetosphere. Cambridge, Cambridge University.
Bhagwat, S. B. 2009. Foundation of geology. New Delhi, India, Global Vision Pub. House.
Capaccio, G. 2010. Jupiter. New York, Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.
Kasting, J. F. 2010. How to find a habitable planet. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.

Lander Project 6

Adaptation to Climate Change

 

Introduction
The concept of climate change as discussed by Adams & Lambert (2006) is a significant concept regarding the continued altering and change in the statistical distribution of whether patterns of a given period of time (Arluke & Sanders 2008). This time range may be between a few decades to millions of years (Banuri 2010). This change may be considered as an average in the weather conditions or in the way the weather events are distributed around a specific region (Bard, Raisbeck, Yiou & Jouzel 2000). Cat (2009) mentions that there are many factors that cause these changes in the weather some of which include oceanic processes (like water circulations in the ocean), solar radiation variations as the rays reach the earth, volcanic eruptions, tectonic plates’ movements, human activities, among others (Braun & Castree 2010).

These activities and events alter the natural happenings in the environment causing such effects as global warming which constitutes the concept called climate change (Brown, et al. 2010). With these changes therefore, there is continued need for there to be a way of adapting to the effects that arise thereof in order to safeguard the future of humanity and the earth in general. The central theme of this paper is to assess in considerable detail, the concept of climate change as regards elements that cause it and the extent of its effects on the natural order and humanity and then provide an equally considerable discussion of ways of adapting to these changes (Brown, Bird & Schalatek 2010).

The understanding of climatic changes according to Craig (2010) are understood and studied by scientists by observations and theoretical models. In De Gregori’s (2002) study, he adds that borehole temperatures profiles, faunal and floral records, ice cores, stable isotope analyses, periglacial and glacial processes, sediment analyses, and sea level records provide supplemental information spanning geological ages which is used in the study of climatic changes (Cunningham, et al. 2010).

Causes of Climatic Change
On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions (Daynes & Sussman 2010).

De Steiguer (2006) defines factors that affect the climate as climatic forcings/mechanisms which include such processes as variations in solar radiation, earth’s orbit, continental drift, mountain building, cloud changes, and variations in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Demenocal 2001). From studies done by Dominic, et al. (2004), climatic forcings can either be considered internal or external depending on the nature of their effect on the changes observed (Edwards & Miller 2001). Internal forcings are defined by Emanuel (2005) as natural processes within the climate system itself such as Thermohaline circulation and external forcings as either natural (like solar radiation variations) or anthropogenic (like greenhouse gases variations in concentration) within the atmosphere (Farber 2007). Owing to the intrinsic difference in the nature of these forcings (whether it is internal or external) the climatic response due to respective variation differs appreciably where it may be sudden (like in the rapid cooling of volcanic ash reflecting sunlight) or slow (like in the thermal expansion of warming ocean water) (Fleming & Bethany 2006).

These changes may also be a combination of both slow and rapid processes such as the sudden loss of albedo in the arctic ocean when the ice in the sea melts away followed by gradual water expansion (Forest, Wolfe, Molnar & Emanuel 2010, p. 501). This notwithstanding, Gould (2010) observes that it is appropriate to note that inasmuch as these changes may be rapid, slow, or a combination of both, the full effect of the climatic forcing mechanisms may take decades or centuries to be fully developed and create an observable pattern leading to climate change (Fulco, Kabat, Henk & Van der Valk 2009).

Internal Forcing Mechanisms
These processes are caused by natural components in the Earth’s climate system categorized in five groups defined as: atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere (Gottlieb 2005). The lithosphere refers to the surface soils, sediments, and rocks. The ocean for instance, is a fundamental part of the climate system and changes in it which usually take longer than changes that occur on the surface of the earth usually have greater effects that can be felt over long periods of time and distance (Haigh, Winning, Toumi & Harder 2010). Oceanic processes usually have very high thermal inertia and for cases of short-term fluctuations lasting several decades such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and Arctic Oscillation are manifestations of climatic variability rather that change in the climate (Houghton, et al. 2010, p. 232). Greater changes in the environment may be occasioned by long-time alterations of oceanic processes such as Thermohaline Circulation which leads to redistribution of heat by carrying out slow and deep movement of water and eventual distribution of ocean heat to deep ocean waters (Hall 2006). Figure 1 shows Thermohaline Circulation simulation.

Fig. 1: Modern Thermohaline Circulation Simulation

Source: (Simison 2007, p. 43).
External Forcing Movements
There are a number of components of the climate system that occasion change via external forcing movements. Orbital variations in the Earth’s movement lead to changes in seasonal distribution of sunlight that reaches the earth’s surface as well as the way sunlight is distributed around the globe (Hanauske-Abel 2007). The overall effect of this orbital variations result in what is called Milankovitch Cycles that appreciably contribute to glacial and interglacial periods as well as the retreat of the Sahara which occasions great climatic changes (International Commission on Stratigraphy 2008). In addition to this, variations in solar output occasioned by cloud cover and variations in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere contribute to climatic changes with varying magnitude (Jennings 2008). Figure 2 shows how variations of these selected components compare over time in the climate system.

Fig. 2: Variation of Carbon Dioxide, Solar Radiation and Milankovitch Cycles over Time
Atmospheric CO2 Increase Pacific Decadal Oscillation from 1925 – 2010Milankovitch Cycles from 800,000 years ago to 800,000 years to comeSolar Activity Variation over timeSource: (Smith, Yin & Gruber 2006, p. 37).

Tectonic plates’ movements over millions of years are responsible for the global reconfiguration of land and ocean areas determining topographical orientation of continents and regions (Jowit 2006). These changes lead to major global and local patterns of atmosphere-ocean circulation and the climate in general (Koch 2011; Zemp, et al. 2008). According to Kovarik (2006), continent’s orientation and position determines oceanic geometry which in turn affects how water in the oceans circulates and this controls the transfer of heat within water bodies around the world (Kunzig 2008). Heat and moisture is controlled by precipitation and ocean activity which when affected by tectonic movements in turn changes the climatic system and tendencies (Martell 2010).

Volcanic activity is another external forcing mechanism that causes climate change where volcanic eruptions release gases and particles into the atmosphere. According to Marty (2006), these eruptions that may happen several times in a century partially block solar radiation from the sun necessitating cooling on the earth’s surface for several years (McCormick 2010). For instance, McKibben (2011) gives the example of the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Eruption which was the second largest 20th century eruption decreased global temperatures by 0.50 C and the 1815 Mt. Tambora Eruption caused the Year Without a Summer (McMichael, et al. 2003, p. 121). Large eruptions called large igneous provinces occurring with little proximity to each other (a few times in a hundred million years) may cause global warming and mass extinction as observed by Measham et al. (2011). In addition to this, volcanic activity is an extended participant in the carbon cycle where it releases carbon dioxide from the earth’s mantle and crust which counteracts sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon dioxide sinks uptake of carbon dioxide (Miyoshi 2010).

Perhaps of all the causes of climate change, human activities constitute a bigger percentage in contribution to these changes of all anthropogenic factors (Müller 2002). According to Müller (2008), climate change occasioned by these factors is largely irreversible and has greater effects that are deleterious to man himself (New, Todd, Hulme & Jones 2001; Oldroyd 2006).

Adaptation to these Climate Change Trends
In the light of these changes as presented in the preceding discussion, a way of responding and adapting to these changes is vital and forms a vital part of research and inventory research among academics (Ohn & Smith 2005; World Bank 2010). Adaptation to climate change according to Parrish (2010) refers to the response to the changes that seeks to reduce how vulnerable biological systems are to the effects of the changes (Pachauri & Reisinger 2007). The necessity of continued adaptation to these changes is necessary even if it were possible to stabilize emissions causing the effects discussed above (Petit, et al. 1999). This is particularly important in developing countries as observed by Ruddiman (2003) who says that it is so because these countries are not usually well equipped to bear the burnt of these effects and yet they are the ones worst hit by the effects (Royal Society 2009). This means that the general adaptive capacity is unevenly distributed in different regions of world’s citizenry and developing countries’ capacity is usually way below the recommended capacity (Preston, Brooke, Measham, Smith & Gorddard 2009).

According to research done by Prentice, Bartlein & Webb (2010), developing countries have lower adaptive capacity since this measure is closely linked with economic and social development and the economic costs of keeping up with this adaptation usually costs billions of dollars annually (Rivington, Matthews, Buchan & Miller 2005). The generally considered physiological limit of this adaptation is that humanity will not survive temperatures above 350C which is anticipated to be exceeded in a number of densely populated regions such as Middle East, India, and Eastern USA according to scientific research (Ruddiman, Vavrus & Kutzbach 2005).

In order to mitigate these challenges and increase adaptive capacity, governments and world agencies formulate policies designed to appropriately handle the causes of climate change and try and stabilize the effects on a large scale (Sagan & Chyba 2010). One of these policies is what is called the Climate Change Mitigation which aims at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere or encourage removal of these gases through enhancing carbon sinks in the atmosphere (Sahney, Benton & Falcon-Lang 2010). These efforts notwithstanding, research shows that the most effective reduction of these emissions will not slow down let alone stop further climate change and its impacts which still requires greater adaptation to these changes (Schmidt, Shindel & Harder 2004). In research assessment, Ruddiman (2005) concluded that without proper mitigation efforts, climate change and its effects would reach a magnitude that would make adaptation impossible for different natural systems such as ecosystems (Seidl 2011). For humanity the social and economic costs of increasing climate change will reach unsustainable levels crashing the whole of humanity under its own weight (Seiz & Foppa 2007).

Effects of Climate Change
The effects of climate change when associated with environmental and human life are numerous and appreciably varied. According to Selman (2010), these effects are first described by increased global temperature which causes numerous secondary effects such as change in weather patterns, rising sea levels, extreme weather events, varied agricultural patterns, and increase of tropical diseases (Simison 2007, p. 21). Owing to these changes, the sea level will rise from 110mm to 770mm between 1990 and 2100, Thermohaline circulation will slow down, the ozone layer continues being depleted, repercussions to agriculture, increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, spread of tropical diseases, and decrease in ocean pH level (Smith 2001).

In the wake of these effects, adaptation is the surest and most plausible strategy in the current projected climate disruption caused by high levels of GHGs due to increased industrialization (Solomon, et al. 2007). This concept is recommendable since it is not clear to scientists whether climate change mitigation can be achieved at all and the odds are quite high that with time, global warming will increase unwavering (Smith, Yin & Gruber 2006). Adaptation is considered to have capacity to reduce adverse impacts caused by climate change through enhancing of positive and beneficial impacts but these intervention attempts are expensive and still do not promise complete stalling of the climate change effects (Stroup 2008).

Adaptive capacity as defined above is informed by factors operating on interlinked scales with physical, economical, and social constraints that drive it (Susan, S., Gian-Kasper, Knutti & Friedlingstein 2009). In Tompkins’ (2005) perception, social drivers of adaptive capacity are interlinked with cultural and economic processes that define the political ideologies of a society (Stroup 2008). This social construction is important in understanding the risks associated with the impacts of climate change since it is not just how the climate change affects vulnerability and people lives but also how the changes are understood in complex social systems forming societies (Svensmark, Bondo & Svensmark 2009). Wagner (2009) gives the example that whereas a 10% reduction in rainfall may be manageable for a community that is technologically advanced in its agricultural techniques, the change may not be acceptably appreciated in a marginalized community with unrefined agricultural activities and techniques (Tompkins & Adger 2004). In this regard therefore, adaptation can be seen as a socially institutional process involving reflection on and responding to prevailing trends and climate changes that are projected (Urbinatom 2010).

Criteria for Assessing the Response of Adaptation to Climate Change
According to Verweij & Thompson (2006), the criteria that may be used to assess the effectiveness of adaptation to climate change may follow the following pointers (Wall 2010):
Economic efficiency – assesses whether the initiative yields economically sustainable benefits showing return on investment.
Urgency – assesses whether delaying the initiative for ten to twenty years would affect its implementation and success then.
Flexibility – assesses how reasonable the strategy is with changing trends in temperature, seal level, and precipitation.
Cost – assesses the minimum cost requirements for the intervention.

Equity – assesses whether the strategy used disproportionately benefits some at the cost of other regions or economic classes.
Institutional feasibility – assesses whether the strategy is acceptable to the public and whether its implementation can be done with the existing institutions and legislations.
Critical resources – assesses whether the strategy comes with it the risk of losing precious cultural or environmental resources in a region if implemented.
Safety – assesses whether the strategy recommended increases or decreases the risk of diseases and injury.
Consistency – assesses whether the policy recommended supports other national, community, or private goals in place.
Private vs. Public Sector – assesses whether the strategy affects governmental interference with decisions best made by the private sector.
Conclusion
In summary therefore adaptation to climate change is one of the key concepts that help humanity deal with effects of climate change. In Woodhouse’s (2009) conclusion, it is observed that enhanced adaptive capacity reduces vulnerability to climate change and in the process activities that enhance greater adaptive capacity also promote sustainable development which can be summarized as (Willson & Mordvinov 2003):
Improved access to resources
Reduced poverty index
Equitable distribution of resources and wealth
Improved educational opportunities and dissemination of information
Improved Infrastructure
Improved institutional efficiency and capacity building

In this regard therefore, it is important to consider effecting these attributes of the concept of adaptive capacity rather than follow on the hope of reducing climate change since some of the factors causing the changes are beyond our control and therefore futile in any attempts to curtail them (World Bank 2003).

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Hydrates

Gas hydrates are found as a crystalline solid which consists of gas module, which are surrounded by a cage of water molecules. Many natural gases are found to consist of molecule size capable of forming hydrate gas for instance carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. All natural conventional gases contain some levels of methane which makes them useful in one way or another. However, unlike other gases, methane contained in hydrates gas is largely attributed to anaerobic bacteria, which at all times acts on an organic matter which are contained in the sediments found below the sea floor. Where there are low sedimentation rates, in the presence of low organic content with high oxygen content, there is a generation of carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic bacteria, which acts on the present organic matters (Fedorovich, 2007, p. 12).

On the other hand, for methane gas to be produced there has to be high levels of sedimentation and oxygen rates hence anaerobic bacteria acts on organic matter. In certain with regard to these environments under the above conditions, high pressure and low temperatures act in content of its environment to create frozen hydrates. Gas hydrates also occurs naturally with combinations of temperatures and pressure which are favorable to the stability and use of gas hydrates over gas water mixture.

Use of gas methane
Methane gas has various uses especially due to its existence form. More conventional, methane gas heated under particular conditions is capable of producing petroleum energy. In addition, methane is found to be the best source of natural gas used for cooking and other laboratory uses. This is an economical advantage of methane gas where it is suitable for a variety of household uses. Methane gas, which is released as a result of landslide witnessed from sea level fall often causes earth warming. Methane gas released also from gas hydrates which is found in Arctic sediments, become warmed in the process of sea level rise. This global warming witnessed counteracts the cooling trends and thereby naturally stabilizing climatic fluctuations and reduces emission of greenhouse gases (Gavarnie & Hester, 2011, p. 42).

Economic production of methane gas can be performed by drilling a well which leads in to reservoir rock. The well is cased with pipes which are perforated to allow the gas flow freely in to wellbore. A string of turbines may be placed inside the case in order to extract the gas up through the tubing, and sometimes the use of a pumping system may be required. However, to work on a strategy that reduces costs, a pumping system may not be required and the gas moves up the tubes when high pressures are exerted in the reservoir. In this case, methane and other natural gas flow up to the tubing from the reservoir rock provided that pressures are low at the bottom of the well than pressure existing in the reservoir (Scott, 2012, p. 6).

When methane is discovered in hydrates deposits found in sandstone or even sand reservoir is harvested in a similar manner which is not only economic but also provides a reliable source of energy in industries and households. This method of extractions forms the best scientific methodology for methane hydrate extraction and use as a reliable source of energy compared to any other source. For efficient, after extraction, methane is subjected to reduced pressure, which causes the hydrates to dissociate and release methane for large scale use as an energy source. When subsequent steps are taken to remove water and gas, further reduction in pressures follows a further dissociation and methane is produced in large scale (Michael & Johnson, 2006, p. 98).

References
Fedorovich, M. (2007). Hydrates and Hydrocarbons, New York: NY, PennWell Books
Gavarnie, C., & Hester, K. (2011). Gas Hydrates: Immense Energy Potential and Environmental Challenges, New York: NY, Springer Publishers
Michael, D., & Johnson, W. (2006). Economic Geology of Natural Hydrates, New York: NY, Springer Publishers
Scott, J. (2012). Natural Gas End Use Report, Retrieved on 27th October, 2012 from: http://catcher.sandiego.edu/items/epic/GHG-NaturalGas1.pdf.pdf

Running Head: HYDRATES 4

 

Engineering Solutions to Groundwater Pollution

 

Abstract
Groundwater development has gained prominence in recent years and its popularity is growing rapidly. Many nations around the globe have stepped up their abstraction and usage of groundwater to serve the consumption needs of a rapidly growing population as well as investment into irrigation farming to boost food security. However, the quality of groundwater is deteriorating at an alarming rate worldwide and this is a cause for concern (Gambolati, 1995). Unfortunately, the policies for maintaining the quality of groundwater are poorly developed and where they exist, they are not well harnessed to optimize their effectiveness. The major threat to groundwater quality stems from environmental pollution and this means that attempts at ensuring a high quality of groundwater must be centered on the fight against pollution.

The poor quality of groundwater is caused by the presence of contaminants, which arise, from increasing salinity, physio-chemical characteristics, introduction of solutes at varying concentrations, biological components, radioactivity, and temperature. Further human activity on the earth’s surface continues to generate numerous chemical and biological pollutants that eventually find their way into the groundwater. Looking at the nature of the pollution and the placement of the groundwater, it is no doubt that engineering solutions hold the key to the solution on groundwater pollution. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the options available for engineers in the search for solution to groundwater pollution (Gambolati, 1995).

The purpose of this research proposal is to outline a methodology for seeking engineering solutions to groundwater pollution. The proposal recommends a qualitative approach that will be used in collecting information from engineers and other stakeholders involved in the management of groundwater reserves.

Introduction and Background
In the twenty first century, international approaches to environmental problems are rapidly taking root and more importance has been attached to these approaches. The globalization of the economy, the growth of global communication and information networks, and the rapid development in bio and nano -technologies pose serious consequences to the environment.

Furthermore, by the middle of this century, the world expects to have hit a population of 10 billion people who will definitely exert such a stress on the world’s natural resources and thereby posing serious environmental problems. It is worth noting that future environmental challenges do not come into being as a result of the depletion of natural resources but also from the manner in which those scarce resources are consumed by the population.

The introduction of new technologies could and may actually lessen the level of environmental degradation if they are utilized wisely and more cautiously, under the guidance of a market system that upholds important pillars that include improved efficiency, improved cost effectiveness, better utilization of energy resources, better environmental management, improved energy security, and improved sustainable development. One area where a lot of focus needs to be put by engineers and other stakeholders is water pollution. Following a global population explosion, surface water is hardly enough to meet the water needs of the increasing population and many nations around the globe especially those in arid and semi arid areas have resorted to extensive use of groundwater to meet the water needs especially in the urban areas as well as irrigation to ensure food security.

However, the usage of the groundwater for consumption purposes is limited as a result of pollution. This is because this water tends to contain high mineral content arising from mixing with waters coming from different aquifer levels, mixing with sewage water, and percolation of agricultural and industrial chemicals.

In the search for engineering solutions to groundwater pollution, the researcher wishes to design a research methodology that will involve the collection of information from engineers and other stakeholders involved in the management of groundwater reserves. The researcher acknowledges that that a subjective approach to this issue will be ideal since the kind of information that will be involved in this research study is not common information. This qualifies the need to collect data from individuals who the researcher perceives to be in possession of key information that will inform policy formulation in the search of solutions to groundwater pollution. Further, the researcher is aware of the need to involve all stakeholders in groundwater abstraction and supply as well as environmental conservation since this will go a long way in fostering legitimacy of the research findings and ensuring an action and developmental oriented research study.

In the Search for Engineering Solutions to Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater is the water that is found underground in the tiny spaces contained in rocks and soil. This water accumulates in large amounts referred to as aquifers which are layers of rock or mounds of soil that have the capacity to store and supply enough water to wells and springs. Over 70,000 chemicals are in use around the world whose improper use and disposal can cause serious pollution and contamination of the groundwater rendering it of poor usable quality and therefore necessitating heavy investments in the treatment of this water before it can be fit for human consumption. The most common sources of groundwater contamination are nitrates that arise from intensive cultivation using agricultural chemicals and chemical wastes from industries that have been improperly disposed.

According to Galperin, Zaysetv, & Nortarov (2003), the purification of groundwater is an indispensable engineering measure, which can be quite complex depending on the type of pollution involved. In attempts to reduce the pollution of the groundwater in the drainage basins, engineers have to consider solutions aimed at the mechanical purification of the water in the settling basins before it has been discharged to the natural drainage system.

This will involve chemical and biological purification processes depending on the degree of contamination. However, engineers must also be more proactive in seeking pollution preventive solutions through industrial innovations that will reduce the quantity and intensity of waste discharge. In addition, collaborations between engineers and agencies involved in supply and distribution of water as well as sewerage and wastewater management will no doubt ensure the formulation of timely solutions aimed at fighting pollution.

The search for solutions to groundwater pollution calls for a consultative process that will bring together experts and stakeholders. Engineering programs in the fight against pollution will need to focus on restoring groundwater to beneficial use and preventing further contamination. This is because once groundwater is contaminated, cleaning it will always be an uphill task. In the past, engineers have invested enormous resources and efforts in looking for solutions to the treatment of contaminated groundwater to make it fit for consumption. With increased human activity resulting from industrialization and intensive cultivation, the problem of groundwater pollution will reach fever pitch and vast resources will be required to make this water fit for consumption against the backdrop of diminishing surface water resources and a rapidly growing population (Galperin, Zaysetv, & Nortarov, 2003).

In this regard, more efforts should be put in looking for solutions to water pollution and improving the efficiency of environmental conservation programs. Through a quasi-policy approach, the researcher seeks to elicit a discussion among engineers and stakeholders in environmental conservation, groundwater management and municipal water and sewerage management. A qualitative approach is recommended for this research study since it will involve gathering high profile and professional information, which is not of common knowledge (Tracy, 2013).

Conclusion
With a rapidly growing global population and increased human activity that has threatened the sufficiency of surface water to support human life and human activity, nations have resorted to the use of groundwater. However, this water is exposed to a lot of pollution rendering it unsafe for consumption and enormous resources have to be spent in purification. Engineering solutions that at aimed at controlling pollution will therefore come in handy. This research proposal outline argues the case for a methodological approach to the search for engineering solutions. The researcher is well aware of the fact that such an approach will be unfruitful if not all stakeholders involved in environmental conservation as well as management of water resources are involved. Based on the need to collect quality information that will lead to influencing policy formulation in the fight against pollution, a qualitative research methodology has been recommended.

References
Galperin, A.M. , Zaysetv, V.S., & Nortarov, Y. A. (2003 ). Hydrogeology and engineering geology. USA: A.A. Balkema Publishers.
Gambolati, G. (1995). Advanced methods for groundwater [ground water] pollution control. Wien [u.a.: Springer.
Tracy, S. J. (2013). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO GROUNDWATER POLLUTION 5

Running head: ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO GROUNDWATER POLLUTION 1

 

Visualizing Geology

Geology is the scientific study of the rock solid and material that composes the Earth and the various processes of its evolution. This study is important for our civilization’s welfare in both immediate and long terms. Its importance for the living civilization generates from the knowledge that it avails about the rock solid and material that forms the earth’s physical basis (Martinet 3-7). Three distinct benefits of geology as a science for our civilization are identifiable. First, it offers knowledge of earth rock material and its evolution processes, enabling the civilization to visualize and know what actions and activity scopes in their daily social and economic lives constitute dangers or benefits to the physical rock solid and material environment and where, when, and what evolution processes on the earth surface threaten the civilization’s wellbeing.

An example of this is the understanding in our civilization of plate tectonic movement patterns and earth crust weak points that have enabled identification of global regions susceptible to seismic imbalances and earth crust faults, hence high earthquake risks. It allows the civilization to take necessary and desirable precautionary and remedial actions in their lives and daily activities to promote the wellbeing of both the earth’s rock solid and material and their own lives and environments. Such decisions include limitation of settlement and construction on fault lines and development and the application of earthquake mitigation programs.

A case example is the region of South California, in the U.S., where geological studies have facilitated knowledge of the “San Andreas Fault” and guided the region’s hazard mitigation policies and plans against high earthquake risks (Martinet 3-13). Secondly, Geology’s importance for our civilization is evident in its offer of knowledge on earth surface locations that are rich in valuable mineral resources with socioeconomic benefits, such as hydrocarbons and valuable ores. Through geological examinations of sedimentary rock material and deposits in different global parts, our civilization is able to identify and exploit valuable mineral potential to advance socioeconomically. An example is the discovery of socioeconomically viable fossil oil/gas potential in the “Gulf of Suez” after the 1970s through geological drilling of sedimentary rock in the area.

Geology facilitated the discovery of energy potential in the region through its studies of earth rock compositions and nature (Alsharhan 143-149). This discovery was important for our civilization as it enabled exploitation of the potential to provide energy for use in the region’s and other world parts’ socioeconomic development activities. It has contributed to our civilization’s wellbeing through facilitating knowledge of locations for the focus of exploitative activities for energy potential to enable economic advancement.

A third importance involves Geology’s facilitation of knowledge and understanding about earth history in such areas as climate, human evolution, life, and environmental changes. Geology is important in our civilization as it spurs discoveries of knowledge about past human life and environmental history. This enriches our civilization’s knowledge about its history. An example is the understanding in our civilization of the ancient existence and extinction of dinosaurs and the human evolution process, fronted by Darwin, through geological discoveries of million-year-old fossils and their properties in sedimentary rock compositions and deposits in Africa and Asia, and on ocean floors (Pojeta and Springer 1-10). Geology has led to discoveries of ancient fossil and bone material that has facilitated the understanding of life and environmental evolution stages and processes.

Works Cited
Alsharhan, Ali. Petroleum Geology and Potential Hydrocarbon Plays in the Gulf of Suez Rift Basin, Egypt. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, APPG, Bulletin, Vol. 87, No. 1, p. 143-180, 2003, retrieved on May 1, 2012 from: http://megeuae.com/SharhanPDFpubs/Petroleum-Geology-Gulf-Suez/Petroleum-Geology.pdf
Martinet, Michael. Earthquake Hazards in Southern California. Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan, 2004, retrieved on May 1, 2012 from: http://www.cityofinglewood.org/pdfs/hazardmitigation/SectionII-EarthquakeFinal.pdf
Pojeta, John, and Springer, Dale. Evolution and the Fossil Record. The Paleontological Society, American Geological Institute, 2001, retrieved on May 1, 2012 from: http://www.agiweb.org/news/evolution.pdf

Insert surname here 2

 

Flooding in Saudi Arabia; Causes, Effects, and Solutions

INTRODUCTION
Flooding is a natural phenomenon that arises due to heavy rainfall when existing watercourses are unable to convey excess rainwater. Flooding can also arise due to natural phenomenon such as tsunamis, sandstorms, and cyclones especially in coastal areas. Earthquakes can trigger water structures like dams causing a failure that results into flooding even in dry conditions. Research shows that floods are likely to occur in coastal regions and in floodplain areas due to geological factors like flat land and low-pressure systems with high tides. Flood plains are low flat lands adjacent to bodies of water like rivers and seas.

Flood plains experience floods periodically because they hold excess water that drip to the water bank due to their geological structure. Flood cases have increased over the years because of drastic changes in climatic conditions. New vicinities are emerging as flood prone areas because of heavy rainfall, natural phenomenon like earthquakes and droughts. Some natural phenomenon like drought is induced by human activities like deforestation and poor preservation of water flow and drainage system. Jeddah, a city in coastal Saudi Arabia is one such area that has experienced floods in recent years due to changes in climatic conditions.

The 2009 floods is perhaps one of the worst floods that was experienced because it led to the death of hundreds, displacement of thousands, and destruction of property. Floods has both positive and negative effects for instance floods dispense rich sediments and fresh steams however, they also lead to the loss of lives, infrastructural damage, spread of water-borne diseases, and shortage of food crops. Floods are caused by two reasons: natural and man-made reasons. The objective of this paper is to discuss the cause, effects, and solution to flooding using Jeddah as the unit of analysis.

1.0 Flooding Caused by Human Activities
Flooding caused by human activities is divided into four categories: deforestation, poor farming activities that damage vegetation cover, poor water management like poor dam construction and maintenance, and population pressure on resources causing people to live in high-risk flood areas.

Man made causalities of flooding can be considered as both direct and indirect. Direct causes are such as infrastructural failures of dams. Indirect causes are such as deforestation, pollution, and improper land use such as urbanization. The totality of manmade destruction of the landscape, as well as increased pollution has resulted in global warming, which has in effect resulted in climatic changes and melting of the ice and snow. This effect has resulted in increased sea levels by more than 10 meters in the past century. This means that if the trend continues lands close to or bordering the sea or oceans could become submerged into the sea. Scientists estimate that by 2050, a quarter of the ice in the world will have melted. This will in turn result in flooding of the low lying lands at or near the sea.

1.1 Deforestation
Deforestation is the permanent demolition of indigenous forests (Collins, 2001). Deforestation occurs due to urbanization and population increase as people clear forests and set up permanent homes. Deforestation affects the manner in which moisture flows in the atmosphere whose magnitude may be comparable to surface water. Moreover, deforestation causes a decline in water-retention capacity of the soil that causes severe water runoff leading to floods, soil erosion, or drought (Vajpeyi, 2001).

Historical data shows that people preferred living and working in floodplains because the land was flat and they surrounded rivers. Since floodplains experience periodic floods, they are full of rich soil and water supply that are conducive for agricultural activities. As people sought these areas because of their fertile soil, many ended up settling in floodplains increasing the population. Forests had to be cleared to cater for the rising population in floodplains so that houses, schools, roads, and farmlands could be established. The consequence of such action is decline in vegetation cover a factor that promotes soil erosion and rate of soil lost.

Nonetheless, soil erosion increases the thickness of the rive-bed that in turn leads rivers to overflow within its banks. The roots of the trees strengthen the soil to prevent soil erosion. Roots of the trees normally absorb the water from the rain decreasing the level of water on land. When trees are cut, the soil loses its support from the roots and slithers around the land causing water to easily build on the surface causing flooding.

Trees are usually a vital resource responsible for controlling the soil’s water retention capacity and compactness. Trees usually absorb water from the soil and thus reduce the capacity of the lands to be flooded. In flood plains, deforestation caused reduction in trees in wetlands which would absorb excess water during flooding. The trees also ensure that the soil is compact and cannot be easily washed away by water. The increased levels of water in the flood plains may flow to the rivers or lakes, which could cause them to burst their levees (Sinha and Ravindra, 2013). Additionally, high upstream river flow in estuarine areas, coupled with low barometric pressure, and rising sea tidal waves may cause flooding within an estuary. Statistics indicate that the rate of deforestation in Saudi Arabia has remained virtually nonexistent in the past two decades. According to data from environmental organizations, the Saudi Arabian forest cover has remained equal at 977,000 hectares between 1990 and 2010. These figures are unrepresentative of the extensive deforestation that could have been done in cities like Jeddah before making them habitable for human populations and activities.

1.2 Poor Farming Activities that Damage the Vegetation Cover
Poor farming acts lead to land degradation and this destroys soil structure that holds the soil together. The soil around rivers is usually fertile and most people tend to use that land for faming. For this reason, lands near rivers are susceptible to degradation because of human-induced practices like over farming, soil contamination using artificial fertilizers and pesticides and overdrafting. Jeddah is coastal city that borders the red sea and is susceptible to land degradation because of its location. Towns found in Jeddah like An Nahda, Al_Andalas, and Petromine have fertile soil by virtue of being near the sea and these areas have high population compared to other town in the city (Saud, 2010).

However, the population has been decreasing due to frequent flooding episodes in recent years like in the case of 2009 and 2011 floods. The towns found in Jeddah are becoming urbanized and the therefore, farming is now being replaced by buildings, roads, recreational areas and schools. The few areas allocated to farming are not being managed well due to lack of knowledge in best agricultural practices. Poor farming activities like over grazing, inappropriate irrigation, over-drafting, and soil pollution damages vegetation cover and spoil the soil support structure. These poor farming methods exemplify tidal flooding and river runoffs that usually cause flooding.

1.3 Poor Water Management that includes Poor Dam construction and Maintenance
Poor water management is a human induced act that could lead to unnecessary flooding. Poor water management could mean miss-management of water catchment areas or poor dam construction and maintenance. Dam failure is one of the leading man-made reason for flooding and this is because of abnormalities related to the design and construction of the dam. Besides any malfunctions associated with design assumptions and parameters that adversely affect dam’s main function of impounding water, lack of maintenance that could lead to uncontrolled release of water is considered failure (Berga, 1998).

Fig 1: A diagram showing some causes of dam failure for instance cracking, stability failure, concrete failure, and erosion at the outlet (USDA, 2012)
When examining the primary flooded zones in Jeddah, human activities contribute a high percentage of all the floods that occur in the city. Ketanah Basin found in Jeddah had a flooded zone reaching 1.83 km2 with a 1.83% of the basin (Saud, 2010). The cause of the flood is attributed to low capacity of man-made channels and lack of protection implement plan in place. The flood arose from high-energy torrents filled with huge amounts of sediments, large-scale drifts, and slides (Saud, 2010).

Dam failure is assumed to begin when the water reaches a dangerous level equivalent to the drainage capacity of the supporting extent. Therefore, the team or group in charge of the dam should ensure there are mechanisms for dealing with risks that would result in overfill or unusual leaking of water for a considerable length of time like regular checkup.

1.4 Population Pressure on Resources of People Living in High Risk Areas of Flooding
The high rate of urbanization is characterized by increase in the rate of rural to urban migration. Historical data shows that lands found near water bodies have always urbanized rapidly compared to inland areas owning to their rich soil and easy accessibility to the outside world. For this reason people tend to move towards floodplain areas and any land adjacent to the sea and rivers. The main problem with this migration is that overpopulation in such areas leads to disasters like flooding because people begin to cut tress as they build houses and over-farm destroying the soil. These flood plains are usually created as a result of flooding of a river upstream and thus depositing its sediment in the low lying lands. This sediment is usually rich in nutrients thus making it ideal for farming such as is the case in Egypt and Jeddah.

However, flood plains usually contain water-loving or hydric soils with plants that are tolerant to the wet soil conditions, which mean that floods in flood plains depend on geological, topographical, and ecological orientation of the lands. This is because flood plains contain wetlands or swamps that hold trees capable of absorbing most of the flood waters. In Jeddah, the wetlands, before their disappearance, were initially capable of absorbing water during flooding (one acre of wetlands can absorb more than 1.5 million gallons of water). Absence of these wetlands has thus resulted in the flooding incidences witnessed in the area over the years (Abhas, Bloch and Lamond, 2012).

According to statistics, the city of Jeddah has been turned into an urban area that is fully habitable and includes almost no traces of vegetation cover.
Fig 3: A map detailing land use of the western region of Saudi Arabia (reliefweb, 2009).
Construction on Poor Landscape
There is also construction of shelters along wadis which sets a dangerous precedence since it is a natural disaster in waiting. A wadi is a dry river bed, channel, or valley that is usually dry and is only flooded during an abundance of rainfall.

The flooding may be minimal depending on the amount of rainfall, water channels, and soil retention capacity. Due to a lack of habitation of people in these lands, peasants and land grabbers may choose to live in these lands. However, the imminent danger of flooding is high, though in the case of saudi Arabia, the lack of rainfall over prolonged periods of time could result in people mistakenly living in these lands. Rampant construction on wadis is unabated due to a lack of clear land defragmentation and educating the public on habitable lands. For instance, during the 2009 floods in Jeddah, some of the people that died were located in a slum region that had been along a wadi. The flash floods that swept along the wadi resulted in water running through the slum and killing migrant workers that were living there. Additionally, poor infrastructural construction in the wadis could also be disastrous due to the uncertainties occasioned by the occurrence of a sudden flood. In Jeddah, the 2009 floods resulted in the demolition of a highway junction built in one of the wadis, which was swept away by the torrential floods.

2.0 Flooding Caused by Nature
Flooding caused by nature is divided into two categories: ice and melting of the snow and high rainfall.
2.1 Ice and Snow Melting
Ice and snow melting play a rule in the rise of sea level. This can easily be explained through global warming phenomenon that is also increasing due to daily human activities like driving that release toxic chemicals to the air depleting the ozone layer. When the earth retains heat from the atmosphere it causes glaziers in the mountain to melt and the ice in the arctic to melt also.

Therefore, ice and snow melting increases the level of water, which in turn raises the sea level. When deep snow and ice melts, it creates large amount of water. However, snow melting alone seldom causes flooding. The likelihood of floods occurring is only when snow melting is accompanied with heavy rains and abrupt warm weather (Singh, 2001). If the ice melts quickly on top of frozen or wet ground serious flooding is expected to occur than when the ground is not frozen. The reason is that wet or frozen ground cannot absorb extra water from the melting snow because it is already saturated. In addition, when rivers and seas are in their full capacity of water rainfall will only increase the level of water leading to overflowing in the adjacent land.

One way of dealing with the problems of ice and snow melting is conducting hydrologic study in areas with glaciers to be able to estimate the anticipated magnitude of flood from those lakes. Moreover, further investigations can help the one evaluate probable future sequence of surges and the advance of glaciers that are huge enough to recreate dams (Singh, 2001). Jeddah is a mountainous region and is located along a coastal plain that ranges in width from 5 to 10 km and with an average altitude of approximately 200 m (Saud, 2010). The physical features of Jeddah make it vulnerable to floods arising from snow melting. This is explains the frequent floods and dust storm witnessed in the area in recent years.

Fig 2: A diagram that shows global warming causes glaciers to melt increasing the sea level (Vajpeyi, 2001)
2.2 High Rainfall
High rainfall is perhaps the obvious and direct cause of flooding around the worlds. It is worth noting that rainfall contributes or sets the pace or other factors that cause flooding. For instance, rainfall helps form ice, snow and glaziers that result in water in case it melts due to global warming. Rainfall raises the existing dam water and this may cause overflow and flooding in adjoining land. In general, floods arise under intense rainfall conditions (Singh, 2001). Under natural causes, floods are fundamentally natural hydrological phenomenon. High rainfall may qualify as prolonged and intense rainfall or high coastal and estuarine waters arising from natural occurrences like sand storms (Singh, 2001). In addition, high rain-fall causes a sudden flooding; this natural hazard is called flash-flooding. The hazard is mainly due to over developing in flood plain, and climatic changes. Certain measures can be put in place if one considers the seasons of short and long rainfalls to reduce the rate of flooding in an area.

3.0 The Effects of Flooding
The effects of flooding can be divided into two: primary effects and secondary effects.
3.1 Primary Effects
The primary effects of flooding are the effects that directly affect the society. These effects change people’s lives once the floods happen. They include:
3.1.1 Death
Death is the general primary effect of floods because a flood occurrence drowns several people at a go. Lack of preventative of problem implement strategies causes any people to down in the floods. Examples of floods that cause death include flash floods and tidal flooding. Floods in Jeddah in 2009 resulted in the death of more than 113 people, and 14 people this year. Damages associated with flooding in 2009 were estimated to be worth billions of dollars.

3.1.2 Property Damage
Property damage is considered a primary effect of flooding because floods sweep away and destroy property through its powerful waves. This directly leads to damage business premises and residential homes. Flooding causes large areas of land to submerge in water. This could lead to foundations of buildings being weakened and thus cause them to crack or crumble. Additionally, torrential floods could result in waters that sweep away any structures or objects present in their paths. For instance, during the 2009 and 2011 floods in Jeddah, cars were swept and piled on top of each other due to the strong whirling waters (Ryan, 2011).

The torrential floods also caused bridges, trees and commercial and residential buildings to be washed away by the floods. As a result of the flooding, many lives were lost and many others injured. The soil eroded from a building’s foundation reduces its strength and could lead to its destruction. For instance, torrential floods in Bangladesh in 2007 resulted in the destruction of trees, power lines, railways, bridges, and more than one million homes were swept away.

3.1.3 Displacement
Another primary effect of floods in human displacement because floods makes people leave the area permanently. The two most effects of floods death and destruction of property. If people are aware of impending floods and take the necessary action most usually, take their belongings and never g back to the areas causing permanent displacement.

3.1.4 Poor Health
Floods directly affect the health of human beings. Foremost, it causes the risk of people getting water-borne diseases arising from drinking or getting into contact with contaminated water. The second health issue is emotional and psychological trauma that affects survivors. Survivors face the risk of suffering from posttraumatic disorder due to the bad experience associated with floods.

3.1.5 Soil Fertility
Flooding causes soil that is upstream of the river to be carried to low lying areas. This soil is usually rich in nutrients and once deposited on the lands, they form a new top layer that is fertile and conducive for farming. This system has been used for thousands of years and has benefited different communities all over the world and greatly benefitted agriculture and agribusiness in the areas. Flood plains that have benefitted from this system are such as the Mississippi valley in the American Midwest, the fertile crescent of the Middle East, and Nile river valley in Egypt. In the latter two areas, these deposits of thousands of tons of nutrient rich soil have been instrumental in maintaining food reserves in otherwise dry lands that can hardly support life. Mountainous regions east of Jeddah have been ideal sources of the nutrient rich soils that are carried to the area. Flooding in the area help in the sedimentation of the soil into the flood plain, and its subsequent use after the floods is ideal for farming, without the need for fertilizers.

3.2 Secondary Effects
The secondary effects of foods are the effects that indirectly affect the society as a result. The secondary effects include two aspects economic and Psychological aspects.
3.2.1 The Economic Aspect
Floods influence the economy of a society by raising the price of goods and services. This happens because the government needs ways of funding the damages caused by the floods through the revenues it gets from the public. The government will require money for building new schools and houses and reconstructing the roads. This is reflected to the individual in the society especially one who has directly been affected by the flood. For instance, a person who has lost his shop and goods may open another shop, but charge higher prices for the products to recover the value lost during the floods.

The economy of the affected region will also be affected. This is because of the loss of property that is vital for commerce to thrive, and thus will lead to a lag of the economic activities of the area. Additionally, the replacement of lost property usually eats into development funds which could have improved the economy. After the recession of the floods, supply of majority of products reduces and thus leads to increase in prices that drives up inflation and negatively affects the strength of the currency and economy of the country. For instance, the 2012 Japanese tsunami that resulted flooding resulted in a dip of the country’s economy to unprecedented levels.

3.2.2 The Psychological Aspect
Psychological aspect is a primary and secondary effect of flooding because it affects people who have experienced the floods directly and those have not. For those who have experienced the storm directly and survived it, they may suffer from psychological problems due to the trauma they have experienced. Those with relatives that have died from the floods may experience the psychological effect in a secondary way because they are suffering from the effect but not directly because they did not experience it. However, a survivor of the flood may suffer from psychological effects in a secondary way if the person lost property because of the floods.

3.2.3 Post-Flooding Effects
Once the flood waters have receded, they usually leave debris lying all over, which could be hazardous. Sharp objects strewn all over the places and sometimes dangling precariously could hurt passers-by and cause injury. Additionally, cracked and weak buildings are hazardous for habitation since they could tumble and destroy life. The receded waters could cause sewage pipes to flood and deposit their loot on open lands. This could be dangerous due to the health risks posed by the sewage infested waters that could have harmful bacteria, fungi, amoebas, and animals.

Additionally, the flood waters could cause moulds to form on building walls previously submerged. This mold could be potentially harmful since it could contain health risks to people. Lagging waters also cause prevalence of harmful diseases such as malaria, bilharzias, typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis A. the proliferation of diseases can be abated by increasing aid to the affected regions, observing sanitary conditions, and evacuation of people in affected regions.

4.0 The responses to Flooding Hazards
The responses to flooding are divided into two: flooding prevention and adjustment

4.1 Flooding Prevention
Flooding prevention involves the community and the government working together to prevent flooding conditions in the area. Some of the ways of preventing floods include building proper physical barriers like dams to hold water. Such structures must be built well or they may end up causing a huge flooding catastrophe. Other prevention mechanisms include building levees and floodwalls in floodplains and any land prone to frequent flooding. According to the British Columbia Food Response Plan, all stakeholders that includes the community and the government should be involved in flood response plan by providing resource requirement that includes human resource for building the floodwalls, geographical information, and provision of riprap by the ministry involved with planning (British Columbia, 2012).

In areas that experience floods as a result of runoffs, scientists utilize modern technology to determine areas along the river that experience the strongest torrents and thus construct levees that could help control the waters on the rivers or lakes from spilling over to the low lying lands. Other flood prevention measures are such as the prediction of storms using the Doppler radar which detects weather patterns and helps create computerized images of rainfall expected in a given region (Encyclopedic entry, 2013). This is useful in detecting areas that could experience a flood.

Another flood prevention measure is where scientists study the soil structure, topography and ecology of a region to determine its susceptibility to flooding through analyzing past events (Acton, 2012). In Jeddah, for instance, soil scientists have determined that the regions soil structure cannot retain a lot of water and thus leading to its frequent floods. These scientists use it to determine the quantity of ground water present in a region, whereby lesser water signifies lesser ability of the soil to permeate water, and vice versa.

The study of the soil structure is also important in determining the areas flooding history. This would help produce a time graph that indicates the timelines for floods and thus determine periods after which a region is susceptible to flooding. Construction of dams along rivers that cause flooding downstream can help hold millions liters of water during heavy rainfall thus reducing flooding downstream of the river (Abhas, Bloch and Lamond, 2012). Finally, the conservation of wetlands and bayous along the river and in flood plains could be helpful in absorbing the flood waters. These wetlands act as a sponge and absorb flood and storm waters thus reducing the effects of flooding (Encyclopedic entry, 2013).

4.2 The Flooding Adjustments
The flooding adjustments include regulations and flood-hazard mapping used to prevent floods from happening. Additionally, Jeddah is a coastal town that could be easily susceptible to the rising sea levels, as well as other coastal flooding disasters such as tsunamis. However, construction of levees along the sea borders not a priority. The only considerable flood prevention strategy in Saudi Arabia is the construction of raised lands with strong flood and rising tides prevention such as in the palm islands in Dubai. In Jeddah, its proximity to the coast should ensure that early preventative measures are undertaken such as the construction of levees along the coast in areas that have low-lying lands adjacent to the sea.

Adjustment to the effects of flooding is a commonality in flood prone areas. These areas have disaster management team that have carefully laid out plans of countering the effects of the floods such as through provision of aid, evacuations, and clean up processes (Dawod, Mirzah and Al-Ghamdi, 2011).
Local Case: Jeddah Flooding

Jeddah experienced one of its worst flooding in 2009 and expectedly, this flood occurred during the month of high rainfall in the region that is November.

Fig 3: The following is a climate graph of Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, showing the average temperature annually and the average total rainfall in inches. According to the graph Jeddah experiences high rainfall in November and high temperatures between the months of July and August and this may explain the flooding episode in November 2009 (World-Climates, 2013)

Jeddah has experienced two frantic flooding with a span of three years in 2009 and 2011. These floods have occurred due to natural climatic changes and man-made factors. The first flood should have served as a warning for future flood risks as well as a learning experience. According to Saud, the Jeddah flood catastrophe was severe because of the intensity of rainfall and lack of mitigation implements (Saud, 2010).

For instance, the city of Jeddah has many towns that have experienced sudden population increase like Asheer and Methweb. These two towns are found along the Red Sea and they contain resources necessary for living like fertile soil and large water supply. However, large urban expansion along the valley outlets of these towns has led to large flooded downstream to urban areas after the deposition of bed loads (Saud, 2010). Therefore, the government or the groups in charge of the area should formulate policies that restrict the number of people living in floodplain vicinities. In fact, they should prevent people from setting up residential homes in the valley outlets so that they can be saved from period flooding and to allow the soil to form its structure and vegetation cover to grow.

Survey of Flooding in Saudi Arabia
The cases of flooding in Saudi Arabia are not common and occur approximately 10 years apart, with the exception of the 2005, 2009 and 2011 floods that were just four years apart. These flash floods mainly affected the arid coastal flood plains of Jeddah. For instance, in 2009, the region received an average of 100mm of rainfall in just four hours. Zones culpable to flooding in Saudi Arabia mainly lie in flood plains and coastal towns. In Jeddah, for instance, natural causes of flooding are not the main hazard. This is because the city has a sewage lake that is approximately 2.88 km2 and 130m above sea level. Frequent floods have increased the levels of the lakes by more than 15m in just one day.

Susceptibility to flooding of the lower Jeddah flood plains could be caused by spillage or sub structural flows from the dam, which holds toxic waste (Rahman and Ahmed, 2010). Additionally, a threat of an infrastructural failure of the lake/dam is likely due to the rampant and unprecedented cases of flooding that could cause structural failures.

Jeddah is a coastal region located close to the Red Sea and has an area of 5460 km2. It borders a number of hills that are parallel to the Al-Sarawat Mountains to the east. Jeddah receives less than 60mm of rainfall annually. Therefore, the geographical, topographical, and ecological structure has adapted to this changes. Rainfall in Jeddah occurs mainly from November to January. The temperatures in Jeddah range from 180 to 390 Celsius. The region is controlled by the North West winds that are light and the southern winds which blow through winter, fall and spring. The latter creates high temperatures and meets with low barometric pressure winds from the Sudan that have low heat. This is usually the causality of rainfall and thunderstorms in Jeddah. Proximity to the Al-Sawarat Mountains has resulted in flow of sedimentation to the low lying flood plains such as Jeddah thus increasing the fertility of the lands.

CONCLUSION
Flooding cases are increasing due to drastic climate changes and human induced factors. The man-made factors seem to outweigh the natural factors because they happen frequently. Factors such as global warming, deforestation, population increase due to urbanization, and poor farming practices seem to increase chances of flooding in certain areas especially coastal areas and floodplains. For this reason, the government and the communities need to strategize on ways of preventing floods through flood response plan. Jeddah is one example of a city that has experienced floods due to natural and man-made factors. Lack of proper measures to prevent future floods after the 2009 floods led to another flood in 2011. All stakeholders must be involved in devising ways of dealing with the flood question.

REFERENCES
Abhas, K. J., Bloch, R. and Lamond, J. (2012).Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.
Acton, A. (2012). Issues in Earth Sciences, Geology, and Geophysics: 2011 Edition. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholarly Editions.
Berga, L. (1998). Dam Safety: Proceedings of the International Symposium on New Trends Adn Guidelines on Dam Safety, Barcelona, Spain, June 17-19,1998. Taylor & Francis.
British Columbia. (2012). The British Columbia Flood Response Plan. Retrieved from The Province of British Columbia: https://mail-attachment.googleusercontent.com/attachment/?ui=2&ik=ab1fb0b734&view=att&th=13d8dc294cf35c97&attid=0.5&disp=inline&realattid=f_hek4m1664&safe=1&zw&saduie=AG9B_P_-xPyyBVlZYQlFLAv6JXIa&sadet=1363951923164&sads=jQMTmLgIOrC0VAAEslbku4klTCQ
Collins, J. (2001, February 1). Deforestation . Retrieved from Enviro Facts: http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/facts/deforestation.htm
Dawod, G. M., Mirzah, N. M. and Al-Ghamdi, K. A. (2011). Assessment of several flood estimation methodologies in Makkah metropolitan area, Saudi Arabia. Arabian journal of geosciences. 6 (4), 985-993.
Encyclopedic entry. (2013). Floods deluge. National geographic education. Retrieved from http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/flood/?ar_a=1Saud, M. A. (2010). Assessment of Flood Hazard of Jeddah Area 2009, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 839-847.
Reliefweb. (2009). Global Map of the western district of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Land Use (as of 30 Nov 2009). Retrieved 8th march 2013 from http://reliefweb.int/map/saudi-arabia/global-map-western-district-kingdom-saudi-arabia-land-use-30-nov-2009.
Rahman, A. H. and Ahmed, S. E. (2010). Hydrological Analysis of Flooding Wastewater Lake in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture Science. 21 (1), 125-144.
Ryan, S. (26TH January 2011).Saudi Arabia stricken by heavy flooding. The Journal.ie. Retrieved 8th March 2013 from http://www.thejournal.ie/saudi-arabia-stricken-by-heavy-flooding-73824-Jan2011/.
Saud, M. A. (2010). Assessment of Flood Hazard of Jeddah Area 2009, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 839-847.
Singh, P. (2001). Snow and Glacier Hydrology, Volume 792367677. Springer.
Sinha, R. J. and Ravindra, R. (2013). Earth System Processes and Disaster Management. London, UK: Springer.
USDA. (2012, January ). Pocket Safety Guide for Dams and Impoundments. Retrieved from United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/pubs/htmlpubs/htm12732805/page02.htm
Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, Environment, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis. Greenwood Publishing Group.
World-Climates. (2013). Jeddah Climate. Retrieved from World-Climates: http://www.world-climates.com/city-climate-jeddah-saudi-arabia-asia/

GEOLOGY 10

Running Head: GEOLOGY 1

Shorelines are Temporary Geologic and Topographic Features

The shoreline has been a habitat of many nonliving as well as living creatures. Inthat, regard the shoreline has different geomorphologic features and has experienced or is experiencing different geological process. According to Morang (2008), a shoreline is the land along the edge of Lange water body mass. In addition, the shoreline experiences many forces both from the sea and the land that makes it shape uneasy to define and describe at over time. In that sense, the shoreline is atemporarily geologic and topographic feature.

According to Morang (2008), the temporary nature of the shoreline is greatly influenced by the erosion of materials due to geological activities taking place along the coastline. Additionally, human activities such as, River diversions, construction of groins along the coastline and consequent loss of wet lands have influencedheavily on the nature of the shoreline. Consequently, the temporary features and subsequent shoreline characteristics are a major concern to geological research. In addition, constructions of dams and reservoirscause sediment starvation of the coastline resulting to shrinking of beaches. Moreover, the over wash during storms as well affects the shape and structure of the shoreline. Back in retrospect, deposition of soil in the coastline is because of inland farming and the effects of deforestations, pose a great impact to shaping the shoreline.

There are several temporarily features resulting from geological activities along the coastline. These temporary features include coral reefs,cliffs, bermbank among others. These features arise temporarily by deposition of materials. In that sense the modern day coast depends highly on the modification of geological activities.

In conclusion, the shoreline is a temporally geologic and topographic feature owing to the fact that, many human activities influence its structure. However, many physical internal processes occurring in the coast influence the formation of many temporary features, the coastline highly depends on the day-to-day activities occurring offshore and onshore

References
Morang, .A,. (2008). Coastal Terminology and Geologic Environment.Engineer Research and Development center. Vicksburg.

TEMPORARY GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF THE SHORELINES 2

Running head: TEMPORARY GEOLOGIC FEATURES OF THE SHORELINES 1