Work-Family Balance

Family and career are the two most important roles adults play. These roles dominate adulthood because of the large amount of time they consume and the tremendous impact they have on the future of individuals, family and society. This partly explains where family-work balance is such an extensively researched topic. However, most studies in this topic focus on women because of their perceived greater vulnerability to work-family conflict considering the historical gender stereotyping of roles with women being regarded as homemakers (Fischlmayr & Kollinger, 2010, p. 456). As women become increasingly involved in the workforce, it is necessary to consider the relevance of family-work relationship to men and women. The work-family conflict need not be a conflict at all. With appropriate balance, the two roles can support each other.

Work experiences can enrich family life and family life can enrich work, but the difficulty of achieving a work-family balance must be appreciated. According to Crawford et al. (2014), family resources such as social skills, material resources and multitasking abilities may enhance performance at work and vice versa. Such a mutually beneficial relationship demands that each individual be able to meet his or her shared expectations in work and family roles. As such, work-family balance involves many domains and satisfying all these domains is a difficult but not an impossible task. Both family and work domains present challenges and situations that cause psychological problems such as depression, stress, anxiety and dissatisfaction, which may adversely affect one or more domains of both roles. For example, family problems have been associated with lower productivity, dissatisfaction with work, increased absence from work and high likelihood to change jobs (Calvo-Salguero, Martineze-De-Lecea & carrasco-Gonzalez, 2011, p. 436).

Today’s workplace and family dynamics have a mixed impact on work-family balance. For example, much research on family and work issues has focused on the conflict between these two roles thus creating an impression that the two roles are incompatible. However, literature on work-family balance rather than conflict is growing and this may restore optimism that the two roles can complement each other (Fischlmayr & Kollinger, 2010, p. 456). In addition, despite the increased involvement of women in the workforce, initiatives to establish work-family balance must account for the differences in the roles that men and women play in the family. For example, the impact of a three months’ work assignment on the family depends on whether it is carried out by the husband or the wife. In other words, lack of a clear understanding of gender differences in work-family relationship may slow down the process of establishing work-family balance. However, as the involvement of women in work increases, fathers are increasingly becoming involved in parenting and nurturing roles that were traditionally for women and thus gender differences in roles and the impact of such differences on work-family balance might decline. Furthermore, work and family mean differently to individuals and organizations. Some individuals prioritize family while others prioritize work (Duckworth & Buzzanell, 2009, p. 566). Organizations prioritize work over family meaning that the different parties to work-life balance discussion must cooperate and allow some level of compromise to realize such balance.

Family-work balance can only be achieved if all stakeholders including workplaces, families, regulatory bodies such as the government and individuals are involved. Organizations can adjust their programs and working schedules to accommodate family needs. For example, organizations can run programs that assist employees to cope with negative emotional states and psychological impact of happenings at home and the workplace because the wellbeing of individuals benefits the organization in terms improved performance. In addition, organizations can have flexible work schedules based on the needs of individual employees. Although designing such work schedules may be difficult considering the many personal issues that may arise, a need-based schedule is likely to benefit the organization and the employee because the employee will be highly productive if the work-schedule enables him or her to meet family and work goals. Individuals can participate in establishing work-family balance in pragmatic ways such as choosing flexible jobs, altering their routines, and relocating to cut down transport cost and save time for family (Duckworth & Buzzanell, 209, p. 566). The government can promote the establishment of work-family balance through indirect policies such as gender equality laws and campaigns. According to Saxonberg (2009, p. 667), gender equality policies improve the freedom of choice for all individuals and thus promote fair treatment of employees and increase opportunities for consensus in homes about organizing family and work responsibilities in ways that promote work-family balance.

Work-family balance is achievable but the complex variables involved in work-family relationship render it a difficult challenge. However, collaboration among individuals, organizations and the government can make it much easier to achieve a mutually beneficial work-life relationship. Since work and family must be understood in their social context fraught with misconceptions and stereotypes, social science research should be intensified to separate myth from truth and construct the knowledge pool and optimism required to make work-family balance a reality.

References

Calvo-Salguero, A., Martinez-de-Lecea, J., & Carrasco-Gonzalez, A. (2011). Work-family and family-work conflict: does intrinsic-extrinsic satisfaction mediate the prediction of general job satisfaction?. Journal Of Psychology, 145(5), 435-461. doi:10.1080/00223980.2011.584082

Duckworth, J. D., & Buzzanell, P. M. (2009). Constructing work-life balance and fatherhood: men’s framing of the meanings of both work and family. Communication Studies, 60(5), 558-573. doi:10.1080/10510970903260392

Fischlmayr, I. C., & Kollinger, I. (2010). Work-life balance – a neglected issue among Austrian female expatriates. International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 21(4), 455-487. doi:10.1080/09585191003611978

Kacmar, K., Crawford, W. S., Carlson, D. S., Ferguson, M., & Whitten, D. (2014). A short and valid measure of work-family enrichment. Journal Of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(1), 32-45. doi:10.1037/a0035123

Saxonberg, S. (2009). Freedom of choice through the promotion of gender equality. Social Policy & Administration, 43(6), 666-679. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9515.2009.00687.x

Identify and Briefly Describe at Least 3 Ways Domestic Violence Can be Exhibited in the Family

Introduction

Domestic violence can be defined as a pattern of brawling behaviors that comprise of attacks (physical, sexual, mental and verbal), and economic intimidation which is used by people against others in intimate relationships. It is the methodological use of threats, intimidation, physical violence and manipulation by a person who is seeking control over another person or intimate partner. The strategies used by the perpetrators depict a pattern of desired behaviors from their victims, which are thought by the perpetrators to be the reason behind the abusive behavior (McCue, 2008).

Effects on Children Who Witness Domestic Violence

Domestic violence can result in children suffering from a range of mental, behavioral and emotional problems. Children’s exposure to domestic violence comes in different forms such as hearing a violent event, direct involvement in terms of eye witnessing, intervening, or being used as a cause and part of a violent event, and experiencing the aftermath of a violent event (Wolfe et al., 2003). It may also include children being used as spies to interrogate older victims, or being forced to take part in the violence or abuse of a victim or being pawned by the perpetrators to compel the victim into getting back to a violent relationship (McCue, 2008).

A great deal of children suffers physical injuries in the course of the violence. However, some perpetrators intentionally maltreat the children physically, emotionally and sexually with the purpose of intimidating and obtaining control over their partner. In other cases, children are often harmed accidentally in the course of violence, such as when the perpetrator throws an object to the victim who may be at the time holding a child or the injury to a child may occur when they try to intervene during violent periods. Additionally, such children may be victimized and coerced to remain silent about the violent experience and keep it a secret (Wolfe et al., 2003).

Domestic violence exposes children to distressing events, the threat of being neglected, the threat of being directly abused and the threat of losing the caretakers or guardians. Consequently, these can lead to very negative results, which include childhood problems (Wolfe et al., 2003):

Cognitive and attitudinal problems – These may be evident when a child shows poor cognitive performance, partial problem solving skills and conflict resolution skills, poor school performance, gender stereotyping, and approval of violent attitudes.

Behavioral, social and emotional problems – These may be portrayed in terms of higher levels of aggression, oppositional behavior, rudeness, anxiety, anger, poor relationships (peer, sibling and social), hostility, withdrawal, low self esteem and depression.

Long-term problems – This may be exhibited through the increased forbearance for violence and the use of it in associations, elevated levels of adult depression and distress symptoms.

Current data showcasing the co-occurrence between domestic violence and child maltreatment has compelled child welfare organizations and programs that address domestic violence to re-assess existing approaches in policies, philosophies and practices for families experiencing both forms of violence.

Partner Rape

Partner or spouse rape occurs when a partner or a person living with another in a committed intimate relationship forces their partners or spouses to forcefully have sex without their consent. This include when a partner feels that they are threatened or coerced into engaging in any sexual activity when they do not want to, when they feel that they are being pressured to have sex, or when they are forced into sex. This is violent because it is against these partners consent and it can happen to partners of any gender, men and women of any age, ethnicity or sexual identity (McCue, 2008).

This kind of violence can be between a man and a woman or partners of the same sex. Sometimes, many people fail to understand how possible it is for someone one has known for long can turn against them and carry out the heinous acts of rape. Many countries such as New Zealand have passed laws to protect partners and spouses from partner rape, encouraging reporting of any type of non-consensual sex. These reports can be made regardless of the type of relationships these people have and can be reported as rape (McCue, 2008). Many victims however find it uncomfortable labeling these offenses as rape and labeling their partners as rapists. The major effect of partner rape is the pain of coming to terms with the fact that a partner has raped them.

Forced Pregnancy of Partner

A forced pregnancy of partner is a domestic violence where a male partner force or tricks their female partners in getting pregnant. According to research, the men who do this seek to satisfy the urge of being in the control of the relationship and ultimately controlling the woman’s body, makes them feel superior (McCue, 2008). Many women of different age have fallen into this kind of violence which is distressful. Some men have proven to puncture the condoms or hide birth control pills to get a woman pregnant. Partners may also verbally and physically threaten their women to get pregnant against their will. Some of the offenders force their partners into unprotected sex, remove the condom mid sex and/or throw away the pills. This type of violence is also known as ‘reproductive coercion’ and it mostly happens to people already in abusive relationships.

How The Concepts of Women’s Role, Latch Key Children, And Division of Labor At Home Contribute To Domestic Violence

Women’s Role

In most societies, economic and social programs are operated in a way that supports patriarchy, which is associated with subordination and oppression of women. This kind of violence is often formalized, in traditional customs and laws, where husbands are allowed to physically punish their wives. The lower economic status of most women has also acted to their disadvantage. Their dependence on the man as the sole provider increases their susceptibility to becoming entangled in an abusive relationship.

Latch Key Children

Latchkey children refer to children who are often left alone at home with very minimal or complete absence of parental supervision. They may come back from school and find empty homes because their parents are still at work. These children are susceptible to loneliness, boredom and fear (younger children), peer pressure with the outcome of sexual promiscuity and drug abuse in older children. These behaviors might be due to peer pressure to be naughty or hostile due to the lack of parents’ attention (McCue, 2008).

Notwithstanding the positive side of adaptation to difficult situations, self reliance and independence, latchkey children suffer higher levels of depression, low self esteem and behavioral problems compared with other children. They are also associated with hyperactivity, conduct disorders and academic problems which make them alienate themselves from other children. These behaviors may continue to manifest into adulthood where they may find it difficult to keep intimate relationships, be violent to people who show concern about their lives. This may be accelerated by the toll of drug abuse and addiction (McCue, 2008).

Division of Labor At Home

In many family set ups, women do voluntary domestic labor which includes food preparation, cleaning and general maintenance of the family. They also perform out caring activities to the children, the aged and the ill relatives. The man, on the other hand, is viewed as the head of the family and takes the financial responsibility. The value attached to financial control in the modern society is high, which gives the men power over women. This is also enhanced by male control of other resources of the family. The unpaid labor performed by women projects them as the weaker sex and a function that contributes to violence against them (McCue, 2008).

Conclusion

Abusive and violent behaviors are learned and therefore can be unlearned through appropriate teaching or training, just like other learned behaviors. Families should seek family therapy and individual therapy or a combination of the two to be in the best position of receiving professional help – learning new and healthier skills for relating to people around them and more productive ways to give support to in intimate relationships when dealing with the difficulties of life.

References

Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis and critique. Clinical child and family psychology review, 6(3), 171-187.

McCue, M. L. (2008). Domestic violence: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.

Identify and Briefly Describe at Least 3 Ways Domestic Violence Can be Exhibited in the Family

Introduction

Domestic violence can be defined as a pattern of brawling behaviors that comprise of attacks (physical, sexual, mental and verbal), and economic intimidation which is used by people against others in intimate relationships. It is the methodological use of threats, intimidation, physical violence and manipulation by a person who is seeking control over another person or intimate partner. The strategies used by the perpetrators depict a pattern of desired behaviors from their victims, which are thought by the perpetrators to be the reason behind the abusive behavior (McCue, 2008).

Effects on Children Who Witness Domestic Violence

Domestic violence can result in children suffering from a range of mental, behavioral and emotional problems. Children’s exposure to domestic violence comes in different forms such as hearing a violent event, direct involvement in terms of eye witnessing, intervening, or being used as a cause and part of a violent event, and experiencing the aftermath of a violent event (Wolfe et al., 2003). It may also include children being used as spies to interrogate older victims, or being forced to take part in the violence or abuse of a victim or being pawned by the perpetrators to compel the victim into getting back to a violent relationship (McCue, 2008).

A great deal of children suffers physical injuries in the course of the violence. However, some perpetrators intentionally maltreat the children physically, emotionally and sexually with the purpose of intimidating and obtaining control over their partner. In other cases, children are often harmed accidentally in the course of violence, such as when the perpetrator throws an object to the victim who may be at the time holding a child or the injury to a child may occur when they try to intervene during violent periods. Additionally, such children may be victimized and coerced to remain silent about the violent experience and keep it a secret (Wolfe et al., 2003).

Domestic violence exposes children to distressing events, the threat of being neglected, the threat of being directly abused and the threat of losing the caretakers or guardians. Consequently, these can lead to very negative results, which include childhood problems (Wolfe et al., 2003):

Cognitive and attitudinal problems – These may be evident when a child shows poor cognitive performance, partial problem solving skills and conflict resolution skills, poor school performance, gender stereotyping, and approval of violent attitudes.

Behavioral, social and emotional problems – These may be portrayed in terms of higher levels of aggression, oppositional behavior, rudeness, anxiety, anger, poor relationships (peer, sibling and social), hostility, withdrawal, low self esteem and depression.

Long-term problems – This may be exhibited through the increased forbearance for violence and the use of it in associations, elevated levels of adult depression and distress symptoms.

Current data showcasing the co-occurrence between domestic violence and child maltreatment has compelled child welfare organizations and programs that address domestic violence to re-assess existing approaches in policies, philosophies and practices for families experiencing both forms of violence.

Partner Rape

Partner or spouse rape occurs when a partner or a person living with another in a committed intimate relationship forces their partners or spouses to forcefully have sex without their consent. This include when a partner feels that they are threatened or coerced into engaging in any sexual activity when they do not want to, when they feel that they are being pressured to have sex, or when they are forced into sex. This is violent because it is against these partners consent and it can happen to partners of any gender, men and women of any age, ethnicity or sexual identity (McCue, 2008).

This kind of violence can be between a man and a woman or partners of the same sex. Sometimes, many people fail to understand how possible it is for someone one has known for long can turn against them and carry out the heinous acts of rape. Many countries such as New Zealand have passed laws to protect partners and spouses from partner rape, encouraging reporting of any type of non-consensual sex. These reports can be made regardless of the type of relationships these people have and can be reported as rape (McCue, 2008). Many victims however find it uncomfortable labeling these offenses as rape and labeling their partners as rapists. The major effect of partner rape is the pain of coming to terms with the fact that a partner has raped them.

Forced Pregnancy of Partner

A forced pregnancy of partner is a domestic violence where a male partner force or tricks their female partners in getting pregnant. According to research, the men who do this seek to satisfy the urge of being in the control of the relationship and ultimately controlling the woman’s body, makes them feel superior (McCue, 2008). Many women of different age have fallen into this kind of violence which is distressful. Some men have proven to puncture the condoms or hide birth control pills to get a woman pregnant. Partners may also verbally and physically threaten their women to get pregnant against their will. Some of the offenders force their partners into unprotected sex, remove the condom mid sex and/or throw away the pills. This type of violence is also known as ‘reproductive coercion’ and it mostly happens to people already in abusive relationships.

How The Concepts of Women’s Role, Latch Key Children, And Division of Labor At Home Contribute To Domestic Violence

Women’s Role

In most societies, economic and social programs are operated in a way that supports patriarchy, which is associated with subordination and oppression of women. This kind of violence is often formalized, in traditional customs and laws, where husbands are allowed to physically punish their wives. The lower economic status of most women has also acted to their disadvantage. Their dependence on the man as the sole provider increases their susceptibility to becoming entangled in an abusive relationship.

Latch Key Children

Latchkey children refer to children who are often left alone at home with very minimal or complete absence of parental supervision. They may come back from school and find empty homes because their parents are still at work. These children are susceptible to loneliness, boredom and fear (younger children), peer pressure with the outcome of sexual promiscuity and drug abuse in older children. These behaviors might be due to peer pressure to be naughty or hostile due to the lack of parents’ attention (McCue, 2008).

Notwithstanding the positive side of adaptation to difficult situations, self reliance and independence, latchkey children suffer higher levels of depression, low self esteem and behavioral problems compared with other children. They are also associated with hyperactivity, conduct disorders and academic problems which make them alienate themselves from other children. These behaviors may continue to manifest into adulthood where they may find it difficult to keep intimate relationships, be violent to people who show concern about their lives. This may be accelerated by the toll of drug abuse and addiction (McCue, 2008).

Division of Labor At Home

In many family set ups, women do voluntary domestic labor which includes food preparation, cleaning and general maintenance of the family. They also perform out caring activities to the children, the aged and the ill relatives. The man, on the other hand, is viewed as the head of the family and takes the financial responsibility. The value attached to financial control in the modern society is high, which gives the men power over women. This is also enhanced by male control of other resources of the family. The unpaid labor performed by women projects them as the weaker sex and a function that contributes to violence against them (McCue, 2008).

Conclusion

Abusive and violent behaviors are learned and therefore can be unlearned through appropriate teaching or training, just like other learned behaviors. Families should seek family therapy and individual therapy or a combination of the two to be in the best position of receiving professional help – learning new and healthier skills for relating to people around them and more productive ways to give support to in intimate relationships when dealing with the difficulties of life.

References

Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis and critique. Clinical child and family psychology review, 6(3), 171-187.

McCue, M. L. (2008). Domestic violence: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.

Validity

The concept of validity as it relates to testing and measurement

According to studies, validity conforms to the actual purpose to which a measuring instrument or test used meets its requirements of verifying the measurement in question (Lissitz, 2009). The higher the validity the more accurate the test and the items or objects in question would be closely related or linked to the actual purpose or focal point of the study. To this end, validity has various forms depending of a number of factors associated with them. In regard to this discuss, one of the forms of validity in more detail.

In relation to this forms, it is worthwhile to narrow this discussion on content validity as a form of validity measurement. Content validity is more applicable for licensure and certification programs. In content validity, links between work-related tasks and the test items get established for correct and accurate measurement. For accurate results are realized through complete test development, good item writing, clear conducting of job analysis, item writing steps, and appropriate set of test specifications would greatly lead to a great test or validity process. At this stage, the level of accuracy is very high and it leads to a more dependable set of results (Saltzman, 2006).

In order to come up with content validity, it is important to note that a group of subject matter experts, SMEs, are collected for the purpose of reviewing the test items in question. Specific areas in a test design are allocated to the specified SME for that particular area and including the test items associated with the particular design area. This kid of process allows for the questioning of the SMEs to indicate and show the agreement or disagreement the matching of each item and its specific area. After this any items that is not in agreement or that does not match well with the content area is dropped or gets revised to better the results. This kind of structure ensures the validity process is more accurate and dependable for the specified purpose (Lissitz, 2009).

On the other hand, the impact of content validity as a form of measurement on the outcome of an evaluation, may involve a number of factors. To begin with, content validity as the most valuable form of validation process has various impacts it creates. The first impact content validity brings with it is that, the samples of items would improve their specific content matching. This would highly influence the domain behaviors as all the samples would contain the same representatives. Content validity has both negative and negative impacts on education. Content validity impacts positively by unearthing the strengths of students and negatively by exposing the weaknesses of the particular test. Basing on these factors content validity has generally a growth related impact and redundant kind of relationship in some cases.

A strategy for addressing the validity of the tests while using content validity in an occupation. The most important strategy in this case involves the assurance that is made in relation to test validity itself. This may be achieved through the controlling of the contents contained in the tests. This step is important because the test`s content is highly related with the nature of the job. This is so because it assures the relevance of each item involved. This strategy would ensure the relevance of the test to the job at hand (Saltzman, 2006).

References

Lissitz, R. (2009). The Concept of Validity: Revisions, New Directions, and Applications. California: IAP.

Saltzman, S. (2006). Exploring Effects of an Intervention for Family Caregivers on Care Recipients’ Symptoms of Depression. New York, NY: ProQuest

.

Transnational Families

Children attitudes towards parents who migrate differ with their age. For example, the reading classifies the children as either preadolescents or adolescents. For preadolescents, attitudes are shaped by emotional dynamics of the adults around them. These include naming, indifference, disregard for migrant parents’ authority, and reluctance to migrate. Children who are left behind tend to refer to their caregivers as “mama” (Joanna 1057). As such, they demonstrate more affection for their caregivers than their biological mothers. Also, children feign indifference towards their real mothers. For example, when the mothers come home, the children tend to act uninterested in them. Some will also disregard their authority and at times even refuse to migrate along with their parents. These children are justified in their attitudes because emotional attachment is critical in the development of a child. Therefore, when their mothers leave them behind, they become emotionally detached. They find this attachment in their caregivers. This is why they tend to show more affection to their caregivers than their real parents.

While preadolescents’ attitudes are subtle, adolescents “grow outwardly resentful” (Joanna 1059). This is because children are curious. They grow up questioning everything around them. For example, “15-year old Gregorio who has lived with his grandparents all his life indicates that his parents’ absence is harder to deal with than when he was younger” (Joanna 1060). These attitudes are justified in every manner. At adolescent, children reach puberty, and they become teenagers. They begin understanding a lot of things and they start to figure things out. They resent their biological parents because they feel abandonment. However, sometimes adolescent attitudes change. For example, when their caregivers are strict, they will tend to turn to their migrant parents who might be more lenient. Therefore, it becomes evident that children will always become attached to the people that they grow and live with on a daily basis.

Works Cited

Joanna, Dreby. (2007) Children and Power in Mexican Transnational Families. Journal of Marriage and Family, November 2007, Volume 69, Issue 4, pp. 1050-1064.

Introduction

Birthday parties are parties prepared to commemorate the birth of celebrants. They are jovial events intended to embrace celebrants as they notice the differences they make in our lives and on earth as a whole. Although some people are opposed to the idea of celebrating one another, it is paramount to celebrate birthdays because they bring appreciation with them. Imagine a world without appreciation days. It would be a dull world because people would never appreciate one another (Radic, 2002, p. 56). Therefore, let us appreciate the parties and celebrations, which come with birthdays.

Notwithstanding the magnitude of the party, many people hold birthday parties annually. I equally celebrate my birthday annually and appreciate the impacts I make every year. I also enjoy birthday parties for my family members. The idea of birthday parties has been in existence since time immemorial. It originated from pagan rituals, and we cannot establish one ancient culture that developed the idea. Many ancient cultures commemorated the day differently attaching different aspects to the day (Lansky, 2012, p. 45). Egyptians commemorated the birth of their pharaohs to stop bad omen from falling them because pharaohs were significant symbols in Egypt. Greeks among other cultures observed the event. This essay evaluates birthday parties in accordance to Grimes’ map of rituals.

Ritual space

To start with, birthday parties never have specific locations that they should occur. They can take place both indoor or outdoors because they are celebration rituals. Therefore, they can occur at randomly selected places. In case they take place outdoors, one should prepare adequately to make them colorful. This does not mean that people should never prepare for indoor birthday parties, but it means that outdoor birthday parties require more attention than indoor parties require. In a family set up, women prepare birthday party events. They are responsible for organizing everything because they do the shopping, planning, organizing and decorating the party (Pleck, 2000, p. 147). For other independent people, they can organize birthday parties independently the way they want. Certainly, no guidelines exist as to how the party should look like and be organized except one should remember the cake, which attracts the attention of the party. One should also make the party colorful.

The concerned parties in birthday party celebrations invite guests. They can limit the number of guests by ensuring that only friends attend the occasion. This limits the number of guests as well as closes the occasion by limiting the number of guests. In case birthday parties take place in restaurants, only guests should participate in the party. This means that birthday parties are not open to everybody, but are open to guests only. Some families choose to conduct birthday parties privately in family gatherings to avoid interruption (Coleman, Ganong & Warzinik, 2007, p. 99). Conversely, during the birthday party celebrations, no fictions or dramas exist in the celebrations. The person celebrating the party may sit at the center of the room to receive wishes and presents from guests and family members. This should be real without dramas after which attending guests may celebrate the way they want.

Ritual objects

Both candles and cakes act as the central objects of the birthday party whereby candles equal the age of the celebrant. The same person should blow out candles as the party goes on or as it ends. Mostly people wish celebrants to blow a thousand candles as a symbol of long life. On the other hand, cakes mark the peak of the celebration. They carry the weight of the party. However, in the absence of cakes, people improvise other types of food to replace the cake. In order to make the party colorful, cakes appear in different shapes and colors. They may appear in white or brown color among other colors as one wishes with candles decorating the cake (Coleman, Ganong & Warzinik, 2007, p. 99). Another object of the birthday party is the birthday book. These books are not common everywhere unless people understand their significances. They first appeared in England. Nowadays people keep their birthday party records in these birthday books (Pleck, 2000, p. 147). In America, birthday parties for children started in the eighteenth century with decorated cakes acting as the main ritual objects. Children received gifts from guests. In the twentieth century, the parties became relatively simple. Few friends attended the ceremony, ate meals, enjoyed cakes and ice creams, and finally presented their gifts. For wealthy families, children who attended birthday parties wore best clothes. They also went through testing time to determine how well they learnt and understood the rules of etiquette (Coleman p. 99). The process of baking cakes is not different from the normal process, except that bakers should decorate cakes after they bake them. They should also decorate cakes as celebrants instruct them to include the age on the cake (Fife, 1998, p. 136).

Ritual time

Birthday parties never take place at defined time of the day. Consequently, they can take place both during the day or at night depending on their convenience. For families’ birthday parties, most of them take place during the day to cater the interests of guests. For example, in case the birthday party celebration involves more children, the party is likely to take place during the day. On the contrary, adult people can fix birthday parties at night after work, which is also convenient for them. With regard to the time of celebrating birthdays, specific birthday parties for specific people occur at regular intervals usually after one year (Lansky, 2012, p. 45). For those people who are conservative, they celebrate their birthdays on the day of their birth. Others change the date to suit their interests. For example, in case birthday parties occur on Mondays, some people would postpone them to weekends when they have ample time to celebrate them the way they want them celebrated. This means that time of celebrating birthday parties is never restraining. Given that the dates of birthday parties are the most significant aspects in birthday parties, divinations are irrelevant in birthday parties. In other words, except the date indicated on the calendar, other aspects are irrelevant in birthday parties (Fife, 1998, p. 25).

Birthday parties commemorate the birth of celebrants. They are relevant because they provide members of the family with identity and senses of belonging. They clarify membership in the families as they remind family members that each family member is important. They also celebrate an individual’s milestones as people acknowledge the progress they have made in life (Coleman, Ganong & Warzinik, 2007, p. 98). Given these attributes, birthday parties are worth celebrating because they bring unity and keep memories intact. Furthermore, given that birthday party wishes enable one to soldier on with the confidence, they are worth commemorating because they give hope of long life. In terms of envisioning the future, birthday parties give hope of living for many years as people wish celebrants to blow thousand candles. On the other hand, birthday parties are usually very short, and they do not have specific duration that they should last. Therefore, the time they take depends on their organizers. In other words, the person organizing the event can make the occasion either short or long. Furthermore, depending on what one aims to achieve, preparation time can also be either short or long. However, in most cases, preparation periods are short (Radic, 2002, p. 56). During birthday parties, ancestors are irrelevant aspects of the event because they do not roles to play. Besides, celebrants attract all the attention. Therefore, nobody else plays any significant role except celebrants.

Ritual sound and language

During the birthday party celebrations, guests use birthday books to register themselves as well as make their wishes. They conduct themselves in celebration moods and are free to make joyful noises if they so wish. The mood calls for dances, ululations, joyous mood and other moods, which fit celebration occasions. In case entertainment is present, it should fit the occasion, as well. Simply, everything in the occasion should fit the occasion to embellish it. Consequently, both sacred and secular music play in the occasion. Notably guests should observe what they expect in their celebrations. Therefore, they never use abusive languages in whatever they do. They should also show respect to one another as age mates do when they stand up as they make their wishes to their counterparts in Chinese birthday parties (Fu, Goh & Li, 2004, p. 102).

Guests also never use nonlinguistic sounds. In addition, they do not shout or moan. They only sing in unison happy birthday songs to celebrants to express their love to them. Unless celebrants organize for entertainment, musical sounds and instruments are rare. However, in the presence of musical bands, any instrument may dominate the event. Furthermore, musical patterns should connect to the social circumstance of birthday parties. They should also revolve around birthday and anything else that would deem paramount to the party. Birthday parties do not require literacy and written texts, but they require some wisdom to organize and treat everybody with some dignity. Should wisdom lack, the event may not be good. Organizers may not be able to organize the occasion well. They may also not coordinate guests in the right manner (Radic, 2002, p. 56). On the other hand, people are free to discuss the occasion given that they do not gossip the celebrants. This is because the occasion is never personal unless people make it. In addition, the occasion never occurs in bad faith as some rituals do.

Ritual identity

In many parts of the world, decorated cakes identify birthday parties, and they usually contain the age of the birthday celebrant. The cakes also contain the same number of candles as the age of the celebrant. Official birthdays include Christmas, which is Christ’s birthday and Christians celebrate it even after his death. Others official birthday parties include birthday parties for the queens of Britain, Fiji, New Zealand and Australia, Duke’s birthday parties, emperor’s birthday parties among others. These official birthday parties are significant to people observing them because they reflect cultures. They also symbolize beliefs and customs.

Usually, birthday parties are celebratory activities and the feelings should reflect celebrations. Thus, the feelings should be the same right from start to the end of the function because participants celebrate throughout. Should there be any religious functions in the process; participants can observe them at any given time. They can start or end with them. The person celebrating the birthday remains the same throughout without changing the identity. This means that celebrants never change roles as celebrants do in other ritual ceremonies. Celebrants also remain focused on celebrations, and they rarely deviate from them. They receive ritual recognitions through songs, recitals and wishes. For family occasions, parents organize for birthday parties for their children, but for grown ups they organize for themselves. This implies that anyone in the family can organize the occasions because they are secular events. Furthermore, nobody has the mandate to criticize birthday parties because they do not have formal methods of organizing them. As a result, birthday parties serve to unite families and friends without threatening anyone (Atyeo & Uhde, 1984, p. 17). Costumes never serve any purposes in birthday parties, but face painting may be significant to children to make them happy without any significance. Therefore, absence of face paintings to children never violates any rules of the party.

Ritual action

Some of the actions at the birthday party include dancing, lighting and blowing out candles, entertainment, presenting gifts to the host among others celebratory activities. As one prepares to blow out the candles, one should make a silent wish, which should be secretive. Traditionally, people believe that if the wish never remains secret, then it will never pass. Therefore, one should never reveal the wish to the guests or anybody else to ensure it remains secretive. Furthermore, the person celebrating the birthday should endeavor to blow out the candles at once. If successful to blow them out at once, traditionally the wish is granted. Otherwise, it is not. It is at the discretion of guests to sing, “Happy birthday” to celebrants. They can do it the way they want so long as it brings joy to the occasion (Atyeo & Uhde, 1984, p. 5). The guests should also present their gifts to the celebrants.

Chinese people celebrate birthdays differently from how American and other people celebrate. They wear new clothes to attend to the party opposed to other people who believe that they should dress smartly. The birthday celebrants then sit at the center of the halls or rooms to receive birthday party wishes from family members and guests. Should the person extending the wishes to the celebrant be of the same age, he/she stands up as a sign of respect. Then guests and family members present their gifts after which the feast starts. In some places in China, guests share gifts amongst themselves, as a sign of good fortune (Fu, Goh & Li, 2004, p. 102).

Conclusion

The above analysis analyzed birthday party in accordance to Grimes’ map of rituals. It explored the different aspects of birthday parties that are evident in many rituals. Among other things, the essay evaluated the ritual space of birthday parties. It identified where the ritual should take place, orientation of the ritual among others. In terms of ritual objects, the essay identified cakes, birthday books and candles as the three main objects of birthday ritual. The essay also established that birthday parties take place at any time because celebrants can alter the date of celebration. The essay also identified the sound and language, identities and actions of birthday parties.

References

Atyeo, M., & Uhde, A. (1984). Birthdays: A celebration. Atlanta, Ga: Humanics Ltd.

Coleman, M., Ganong, L., & Warzinik, K. (2007).  . Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.

Fife, B. (1998). The birthday party business: How to make a living as a children’s entertainer. Colorado Springs, Colo: Piccadilly Books.

Fu, C., Goh, G., & Li, X. (2004). Origins of Chinese people and customs. Singapore: Asiapac Books.

Lansky, V. (2012). Birthday Parties: Best Party Tips and Ideas For Ages 1-8. New York: Book Peddlers.

Pleck, E. (2000). Celebrating the family: Ethnicity, consumer culture, and family rituals. Cambridge, Mass.

Radic, S. (2002). The birthday book: Creative ways to celebrate your child’s special day. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan.

Housewife to career

Introduction

A Housewife is family woman who is married. The main occupation of a housewife in the family is operating and running of the family home. Her main cores in the family include caring for the children, educating her children, storing and cooking food for the family. She is also supposed to buy the goods that the family needs in their daily lives. She is also involved in the cleanliness, maintaining the home and making of clothes for the family needs.

Housewives do not often maintain a formal employment away from home. According to Brown and Barbosa, a housewife is often a married woman or lady who is primarily in charge of the household (372). In the United States, a housewife is also referred to as a homemaker. A homemaker is the main gender neutral American term for a housewife and the stay home dads. The term housewife is sometimes used in an offensive sense when used in contrast with the career woman. To be a housewife is to be a member of a peculiar occupation. The nature of the duties to be performed, the form of the payment, methods of supervision, the tenure system and the nature of hazards are different from other occupations. Yet being a housewife meets the American heritage dictionary definition of an occupation.

Several women and housewives are entering the work market, and most of them have started their own businesses. The society is steadily accepting women and housewives as an economical force. Presently, more women are competing for the top managerial careers; however, the women are limited in this development. The women are still encountering the challenging barriers to career development.

Women and housewives have become significant players in the globally developed economies. This is attributed to changes in women empowerment over recent years. Currently, housewives are participating in all aspects of daily life. However, despite their increase in number, women continue to hold the lower positions and other few corporate leadership and management positions. However, although slowly, it is observed that there is a steady increase in the housewives numbers who are entering into careers. It is often reported that low numbers of women and housewives in the labor market is mainly due to lack of career opportunities rather personal decisions (Hellenga, Aber and Rhodes 222).

Housewives and career women

The housewives in the current world are shifting from the home roles to careers. This is because of the current harsh economic terms that push the housewives to enter into careers away from the home setup. Some feminists’ economists (mostly the proponents of materialism) argue that the monetary involvement of housewives and their work to society is often ignored in the standard formulation of economic output in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) and other employment figures. The housewives’ work involves many unrecorded hours in a week while they depend for money from their husbands’ employment (Quisumbing, Kelly and Marie 420).

In contrast, some modern women leave their paid workforce and concentrate full time on home and childrearing roles. This is in particular during their children’s initial years before they enter into the kindergarten. There is often significant variability within the housewives population regarding to their intent of returning to the paid career. Some housewives plan and prefer to work from home; some prefer doing part time careers while others intend to return to full time careers when the children reach the school age (Farmer 390). Currently, most housewives have opted to increase their career skills by joining the higher education. Other housewives find it economically reasonable and feasible to avoid from entering the paid careers.

Similarly, considerable variation exists between the housewives and the career women in their attitudes towards the domestic chores related to children care. Most women, both housewives and career women, embrace the traditional role of a housewife. This includes cleaning, cooking and providing care for the children. Other women argue their primary duty as that of providing childcare and supporting the children’s physical, emotional and intellectual development. They often opt to sharing and outsourcing for the other home care aspects.

Career Women versus Housewives

Most married women are faced with the life challenging questions, whether should they become traditional housewife or pursue their lives as business or career professionals. The married career woman’s daily life cannot be compared to the daily housewife lives. This is because of the time spent with their families are different. Their emotional satisfaction and responsibilities differ with the housewives to a considerable extent.

First, consideration for women in choosing their career paths is deciding the base for their emotional satisfaction. Career women often focus on their own desires and needs and depends on if something happens with their marriage. Similarly, housewives are solely dependent upon their husbands’ support in the economical aspect of their lives and the family. Being a career woman, one will easily come into contact with the, professional outside, world instead of being clustered in the home daily. However, the housewives stay in close contact with their families. As a result, the children often grow up and respect their mother. A career woman’s marriage, the husband and wife, are often equal because of the shared and similar responsibilities (Albert and Luzzo 433).

In addition, housewives and career women often use their time differently. Career women have little time to spend with their families because of the career commitment. Housewives, on the other hand, spend more time with their family especially the children. House wives watch their children grow older. Career women usually have more and ample time for leisure. They can be able to schedule some days off from work to have pleasure. Housewives, on the other hand, have inadequate leisure time. This is because housewives work almost throughout the day. These tasks involve taking care of the children, cooking and watching the home. A career woman has her predefined time of working. On the contrary, the housewives keep their day open for the family needs. They can even wake up in the death of the night so as to take care of the little ones.

Finally, for the career professional women, both husband and wife have equal responsibilities of raising children. In contrast, the responsibilities of housewives are focused on children and husband well being. Both couples in a career woman family are responsible equally for maintaining and fostering a healthy marriage. Housewives, in contrast, are solely left in dealing with the marriage problems. Career women are able to assist with the family bills when they have a second income. Although, being a housewife is challenging than other careers, rewards lie in satisfaction levels rather than monetary (Burlin 106).

Therefore, more housewives are opting to lead lives of the career women. Weighing the alternatives on which path to take has been a daunting task for the women. Whichever path is chosen the women follow these options. These are how they spend their time, the emotional satisfaction and responsibilities at hand. If a woman values the tradition family role than money, then the housewife role is the best fit. On the other hand, most career women are expected to effortlessly juggle marriage, family, and career.

Currently, a growing number of women hold the view that they ought to be career women rather than housewives. This trend is attributed to women’s status improvement in the society. The society has recognized the women contribution to the job market and careers. As a result, women have equal rights with men in the job hunting process and in fulfilling their desires for success. The difference between a career woman and housewife is mainly on their personality (Burlin 112).

Housewives to career historical Perspective

At diverse times of history, career women were considered immoral and unfeminine objects. Some critics and people accused career women of being negligent women and mothers. During this period, the women were restricted to household chores and care of the children. Frequently, career women were despised by their bosses, society and colleagues. Having a career created challenges to women due to the family responsibilities and household tasks. Women or housewives were expected to carry out duties as a wife and mother to the family and also fulfill their professional responsibilities. According to Quisumbing, Kelly and Marie, some women often experienced feelings of selfishness and guilt when they put their career interests ahead of the family (421). Because the family demands and women’s career were simultaneous, the demands had a noteworthy impact on women’s careers. Achieving the career status was difficult for women during that time. The women, as a result, resorted to take the role of the housewife and take care of the family.

Despite the increasing women population, women (especially the housewives) tend to enter the career workforce in the lower status and pay jobs. These career women remain clustered to the limited number of traditional careers. The low paying traditional female careers include sales, administrative support, services, teaching, nursing, teaching, clerical jobs and social works. This is also reflected in the society’s constant attitudes regarding the stereotypical occupational roles for men and women.

Because the women’s career options were restricted, the women earnings lagged their male counterparts with similar education and experience (Albert and Luzzo 440). Women in careers earned almost two thirds the earnings of their male counterparts. The discrepancy in their income was attributed to the disparities that exist between the traditional male and female occupations. For instance, women and housewives were unlikely to be employed in technical jobs as these were considered male occupations.

The factors that narrow housewives into their traditional home role include the social and familial influences, discrimination within the careers and lack of adequate awareness regarding their roles. The other factors are unwelcoming male dominated fields, high rates of turnover for women, and minimal seniority for the given jobs. These factors contributed to more women remaining in their homes and become housewives.

Housewives Participation in the Workforce

The woman’s role in the workplace has significantly changed throughout time. Historically, the society believed that a woman’s place was at her home. At home, the woman was supposed to be a housewife and take care of her children and husband. The feminine valued traits such as a submissiveness and meek nature were feared to be diluted if the women got into the workforce. The earliest instances of women working away from home date back to the Industrial Revolution period. Women usually assisted the husbands in maintaining the family and the businesses, although they did not receive any pay. If the women were paid for any work, they often earned less as compared to their male counterparts (Albert and Luzzo 431).

Ultimately, housewives began extending their careers or work away from home. The works that women engaged include the domestic jobs and other tasks such as clerical works. The integration of housewives into careers has been a gradual process. The process was also viewed unfavorably by the community. Although a number of women began experiencing the life in the workplace, they were often regarded as temporary workers. Their jobs took second place besides marriage and childbearing (Hellenga, Aber and Rhodes 239). By the nineteenth century, several women were involved in professions such as teaching, clerical work and nursing. These careers were perceived feminine, and the community deemed them suitable for single women.

In 1904, less than 4% of the married women worked away from their homes. By 1910, 26% of the women were participating in the work force. The percentage steadily rose over the subsequent decade. By the year 1918, almost 8.4 million women were working outside their home (Albert and Luzzo 443). The numbers remained stable until when the World War II began. The World War II onset sparked an acute increase in the labor participation among ladies. In additional to the female oriented careers, women were also hired for skilled union jobs. These positions were previously unavailable to women.

Following the Second World War, women and housewives continued to enter into careers in growing numbers. The labor market women participation increased sharply from 32% in 1950 to almost 52 % in 1985. By the late 1980s, almost 50% of the married women and 43% of women aged over 16 years were working. However, the women still viewed careers as secondary to the domestic responsibilities they held at home. In 1990s, almost fifty seven adult women between ages sixteen and over were in the paid careers (Burlin 107). Despite the brief stall during the early 1990s, the women career participation rates were again on the rise again by 1994. However, the number of housewives also was increasing.

According to Brown and Barbosa, in 1994 almost 45 percent of the women were housewives (372). The large numbers of career women dared the traditional stereotype of housewives. By mid 1990s, the stay at home housewives and the bread winning husbands characterized only eight percent the American families. This clearly demonstrates that the housewife roles of women have been diluted by the career women. In the year 2013, it is estimated that forty nine percent of the workforce will be composed of women. More housewives are currently moving to careers so as to provide for the family needs.

It is projected that the number of women in the workforce participation will continue to grow throughout the year 2015. Hellenga, Aber and Rhodes credit the increase in women career rates to more housewives entering the workplace than previously (243). Also, this is attributed to favorable attitudes and perception toward the working women. The longer life expectancies among women, use of birth control methods and the changing marriage patterns have also contributed to the increase of women in the labor force. Currently, there are no questions on whether housewives and women will participate in careers. In addition, the housewives to career women are not considered as a departure from the norm.

Barriers to Housewives’ Workforce Participation

Barriers are the obstacles that prevent the forward movement. They are also the events or conditions that make the career progression difficult. Quisumbing, Kelly and Marie indicated that the barriers explain the gap between the women abilities and their achievements (464). Barriers are noteworthy factors in any career development process. The onset of barriers often begins when the housewives are children. The barriers are then reinforced throughout the women’s schooling and work. The barriers can be overcome, although effectively conquering the barriers depends on the barrier and the personality of the individuals. The housewives often perceive role conflicts and barriers as the obstacles towards their career development process. The common barriers women face include sex typing of careers, sex discrimination and occupations, which women feel they are unable to control.

According to Quisumbing, Kelly and Marie inadequate career skills and poor academic achievement were found to be key reasons why housewives fail to succeed in their careers (433). Childcare is also another potential barrier to career participation among many housewives. Despite the perceptions from women, findings from current studies reveal that women and housewives show interest in a number of careers. The women also exhibit more gender roles flexibility in career aspirations as compared to men (Farmer 397).

Research has shown that the educated women are more likely to enter into the paid careers than the uneducated women. Most housewives, however, have low levels of education. This has made women stay away from employment and become housewives. Currently, the increase in education among women has resulted to the changing roles and expectations among the housewives. Most of the housewives are now getting out of the entering into careers.

The Future of Housewives and Career Participation

Over the past few years, housewives have joined the labor force in increasing numbers. This has partially helped in closing the women participation gap in careers. Between the year 1985 and 2010, the female labor force global rate of participation rose. The women rate of participation rise was from 49.5 percent to 52.7 percent while the male rate of participation fell from 81 percent to almost 78.7 percent. Consequently, the gender differentials in the work force participation declined from 30 percent in 1980 to almost 25 percent in 2010 (Hellenga, Aber, and Rhodes 244).

The workforce women participation rates are lowest in North Africa and the Middle East at 26 percent. The workforce women participation rates are highest in Pacific and East Asia at 64 percent. The Sub Sahara Africa workforce participation rates stand a high of 61 percent. Despite the broad cross regional participation differences, the rates are converging with time.

The changing workforce women participation rates have translated into more housewives entering into careers than other women. This has also brought in stronger market incentives targeting the women work force participation. Also, there has been a rising demand for women labor with higher relative and absolute wages as compared to the traditional housewives. In addition, the recent economic developments such as improvements in infrastructure have alleviated the time constraints and transaction costs that are associated with careers, particularly among housewives and women (Brown and Barbosa 399).

Changes in educational levels have facilitated the housewives’ integration into the career market. The more educated women traditionally have exhibited greater career participation rates than the less educated women. As the education levels increase around the globe, more housewives have ventured into the paid careers outside their homes.

Similarly, the changes in the formation of the family have gradually increased the career market participation for many women and particularly the housewives. Marriage is often traditionally associated with the decline in female work force participation among many women. The participation further decreases when more children are born. For instance, in Egypt, the women who had just been married in 2009 were almost forty percent less likely to be involved in the career market. This family formation, as a result, leads to many housewives in the homes (Albert and Luzzo 436).

The increase in the age of marriage among women and the decline in the fertility level have led to more women entering into careers than the later years. As a result, this has contributed to the higher housewives participation levels in careers in these countries and regions. Furthermore, the impacts of the economic development, changes in education levels, and the family formation among the housewives vary across regions, individuals and countries.

Conclusion

The housewives career aspirations have been evolving steadily throughout the twentieth century. This has resulted in the increased women workforce participation rates in many careers that were initially dominated by men. Several factors have always influenced and repressed the housewives involvement in the career aspirations and development throughout the years. The careers type housewives choose and the factors influencing their choices are the relevant issues that should be examined. This is because most research shows that housewives or women still work in the lower paying and the traditionally female oriented careers.

Continued research on housewives to career should be a lifelong process in the women’s career aspirations and development. This is necessary in explaining the housewives career and occupational path. This is necessary because the housewives will always remain as an important sector in the American workforce. Gaining insight into their career aspirations and interests will also be crucial in expanding their career options presented to the housewives (Brown and Barbosa 387).

In conclusion, more housewives are opting to lead lives of the career women. As a result, more housewives have shifted their roles from the stay at home wives to promising careers. In weighing the alternatives on which path to take, it has been a daunting task for the housewives. Whichever path is chosen, the housewives should consider how they spend their time, the emotional satisfaction and responsibilities at hand. If a woman values the tradition family role than money, then the housewife role is the best fit. On the other hand, the career woman will be expected to effortlessly juggle marriage, family, and career (Albert and Luzzo 441).

Works cited

Albert, Katrice., and Luzzo, Darrell. “The roles of the perceived barriers in careers development: The social cognitive perspective.” The Journal of Counseling and Development, September 21, 2009, p. 431-445.

Brown, Sandra., and Barbosa, Gail. “Nothing is going to stop me now: The Obstacles perceived by the low income women in becoming self-sufficient.” The Public Health Nursing Journal, May 24, 2009, p.372-400.

Burlin, Frances. “The relationships of parental educational and maternal works and occupational status for occupational aspiration in the adolescent females.” The Journal of Vocational Behavior, April 23, 2008, p. 104-112.

Farmer, Holt. “Model of career and achievement motivation for women and men.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, December 3, 2010, p. 390-420.

Hellenga, Kate., Aber, Mark., and Rhodes, Jean. “Africans Americans adolescent mothers’ vocational and aspiration expectation gap: The Individual, social, environmental influences.” The Psychology of Women Quarterly, January 17, 2010, p. 212 – 250.

Quisumbing, Agnes., Kelly, Hallman and Marie, Ruel. “Maquiladoras and Market Mamas: Women’s Work and Childcare in Guatemala City and Accra.” Journal of Development Studies, November 3, 2007, p. 420-502.

Family Literacy Program Planning

Introduction

Family literacy is an educational method which thrives in the credence that parents are the first teachers of their children. It focuses on the future of the lives of the children as well as the parents. Literacy can be defined as the aptitude of an individual to read, write as well as think. Through family literacy, healthy family relations are cultivated, and the literary skills of the parents and the children improve. Family literacy aids in the integration of the childhood education, parent education, adult learning and the interactive activities for both parents and children. For family literacy to be effective, an integrative program needs to be undertaken (Pafamilyliteracy.org, 2011, para.1). This program is known as the Family literacy program. This paper shall elucidate on the need for the illiterate parents to build up on their literacy skills with the view to teaching their children.

Statistics

From Wisconsin, facts show that 7.2 % of the residents above the ages of 25, who have finished high school, did not receive a diploma. Again, 232, 500 adults between the ages of 25 to 64 did not finish their high school studies. In Wisconsin, 27, 200 people are unemployed. Looking at the statistics, 3.8% of the inhabitants of Wisconsin, above the ages of twenty five, lack an education level above 9th grade. Alarming is that 9.9% of the people in this area of jurisdiction, above the ages of 25, have no high school education. In terms of numbers, this is 375,500. There has been an increase in the number of people from other areas where English is not their national language. This has had the effect of increasing the number of households which do not speak the English language exceptionally well. In essence, a large part of the population is illiterates. This has brought about the need to promote family literacy within Milwaukee Wisconsin.

History of the Organization

The institution is known as Milwaukee family literacy organization. The organization has been in operation for seven years. It is a non-profit making entity guided by the need to enhance family literacy to the parents and children of Milwaukee Wisconsin. The organization has come up with a family literacy program which covers various multicultural people. The people are in need of learning in a comfortable environment with the aim of improving their personal, as well as future livelihoods. From the statistics of Milwaukee Wisconsin, many people above the ages of 25 are illiterate. It is because of these trends that Milwaukee family literacy organization was established. Among many other duties, the organization helps immigrants to understand Cultural and English literacy. This will enhance their chances to be employed and also, to improve the overall family knowledge (Pafamilyliteracy.org, 2011, para. 3). Milwaukee family literacy organization is funded by government, grants, public donations as well as private institutions and corporations.

Information about Milwaukee family literacy organization

The organization serves illiterate inhabitants of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The literacy program has been designed to cater for the illiterate for about three to six months. This program is highly flexible as it incorporates the training of the parents. It engrosses the parents who are interested in reading, Math and writing. In addition, nonnative speakers are taught on ESL while the immigrants are trained on the cultural literacy. The literacy program has been well thought out and the right and qualified hired to deal with the students. The organization has been in the forefront of ensuring that the children are provided with day cares, reading materials as well as other activities (Wasik, 2012, p.223). The family is taken care of as there are many classes to teach them on languages, group meetings, workshops and field observations. All this functions serve to improve on the literacy of the entire families of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

The organization shall appoint a team of professionals, who will listen to the needs of the population and arrange on the unsurpassed course of action. This will aid in addressing the plight of each and every family. The clients are between the ages of 7 and 45 years. Most of the clients come from families which have a low income. Both male and females are integrated in the family literacy program. The race or the ethnicity of the clients is multicultural. Most of the clients are individual learners, government agencies and corporations. The family literacy program is devised to suit the needs of the different clients. This program is appreciated by teachers, parents, different organizations, the members of community and the government at large (Wasik, 2012, p.225). The best component in relation to the program is that it does not limit itself to parents and children but varied multicultural people.

Problem Statement

According to the statistics on Milwaukee, there is the need to ensure that people have the required literacy levels. Most families in Milwaukee do not know how to read, do basic arithmetic or write. Family is the unit of society. Illiteracy causes enormous loses to a country in terms of increased unemployment and disconnection of the children and family at large, from the society (Talan, 2001, p. 13). Intergenerational illiteracy, as well as poverty, can only be broken through educating the society by starting with the family unit. Once the society has gained the knowledge, they shall become productive members of the society.

The schools in Milwaukee perform extremely poorly as compared to schools from other jurisdictions. This has been caused by the enlargement in the number of illiterate families. It is in the light of these happenings that the Milwaukee family literacy organization was set up. Security is another prime concern in Milwaukee. This can be attributed to the hundreds of illiterate inhabitants of the city. Also, lack of knowledge to undertake small repairs are making it a herculean task for home owners to renovate their buildings (Chance & Sheneman, p. 15). There is no parental involvement in the affairs of the children’s education. The number of single parents has vastly increased. This affects the future of the children as they lack formative teachings from either parent. The best part of the story is that all this illiteracy can be done away with, through the adoption of the family literacy program (Wasik, 2012, p.226). Through this program, children will see the need of education as the parent’s shall lead from the front. Crime rates will go down, innovation, creativity and new projects shall improve the performance of the city.

Needs Statement

The program shall cater for both parents and children. Parents should be role models to their children. Through the program, the needs of the children and the parents shall be handled according to their definite needs. The motivation to learn shall be drawn from the need to make the community a better place for the society to live. Instructors and trainers shall be there to ensure that they coordinate the teachings and improve the literacy levels of the community (Talan, 2001, p. 17). Classes of the clients shall be large enough to be occupied by both parents and their children. Also, the classes shall be divided to ensure that some sessions can be conducted to the children on one hand and to parents, on the other hand.

After knowing where the problems are, the family literacy program shall be modified to suit those needs. As in the past, Milwaukee has been on the forefront of ensuring the success of the program. It shall not disappoint but will continue with its legacy of success. The program shall be devised in a way that the children and parents shall spend time together. Parents shall be taught on how to interact with their children and the converse shall be done to the children. Workshops shall be encouraged to ensure that children and their parents share ideas and thoughts. This way the program shall realize its purpose in enhancing the literacy levels of the people of the city of Milwaukee.

Adult educators shall be sourced from different institutions. Considerations shall be given towards the socioeconomic and cultural differences. This is because, from the statistics most of the population is from other areas of Hispanic and Latino background. Again, language barrier may be a problem to the staff and parents. Hispanic and Latino instructors on adult education shall be sought. The program will show the timings in terms of reporting for classes and time for departure. Such disciplines will help both the students and their parents to know the imperativeness of time management. Safety in the organization shall be given first priority to guarantee the success of the program. The attitudes of the parents and the children shall be monitored to enhance healthy relations inside and outside the classes (Talan, 2001, p. 18).

For all the above to happen, advertisements shall be carried out. Students shall be recruited and enlisted in the family literacy program on the basis of their knowledge uptake. Different locations within Milwaukee shall be established to avert long distances covered by the parents and children. The entire training process shall be diversified with the view to satisfying the desires of the diverse clients (Chance & Sheneman, p. 20). This way, the entire city of Milwaukee shall be literate, and differences in terms of developments shall begin to manifest. Productivity shall increase security issues shall reduce as the children will focus on their studies. The levels of poverty shall decline forthwith and the standard of living for the people of Milwaukee improves significantly.

References

Chance, R., & Sheneman, L. (2012). Crash course in family literacy programs. Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited.

Pafamilyliteracy.org. (2011). Family Literacy Information. Retrieved on 16 October 2012, from: http://www.pafamilyliteracy.org/

Talan, C. (2001). Family literacy: An investment in the future. The Bottom Line, 14(1), 12-18. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/219156194?accountid=45049

Wasik, B. (2012). Handbook of Family Literacy. New York: Routledge.

Children and family’s ethical dilemmas

Cathy’s family ethical dilemma

As a good deontologist, one should consider one’s obligation as opposed to the outcomes of the action because it is ethical to do so. Therefore, looking at the action itself and deciding on its legality is the most important thing to deontologists. Furthermore, deontological theory requires people to stick to their commitments and duties when dealing with ethical dilemmas. This implies that people should follow their obligations in making decisions as opposed to anything else (Null, 2011, p. 264).

Recently, a family friend called Cathy faced an ethical dilemma that according to her tested her commitment to deontological theory. The company she works for changed the compensation structure that demanded employees to earn hourly. According to her she cannot meet her monthly expenses unless she woks for more than twelve hours. However, she has two children in need of motherly love apart from the care they get from the house help. Therefore, for the sake of the children, Cathy decided to work for eight hours she previously worked for. However, she has an outstanding budget to meet and savings to do at the end of every month. So far she has not decided on the method to employ in dealing with the outstanding budget, but she feels comfortable as her family is comfortable. According to her she made this decision because she believes as mother she has the responsibility of taking care of her children. Furthermore, others contribute immensely towards the development of their children. Hence, the decision to make this judgment emanates from Cathy’s responsibility to take care of her family (Barnsley, 1972, p. 76).

Utilitarianism theory is a similar theory that resembles deontological theory applied in the case above. However, its basis is the ability to foretell the outcomes of the actions. People who apply this theory should decide on the outcome that yields the utmost benefit between what is right and good. Nevertheless, one of its benefits is that it compares the outcomes to determine the most beneficial outcome. Hence, provides logical arguments for every decision (Connolly, 2009, p. 27). Presumably, the decision that Cathy made would not be different because of the two types of utilitarianism theories in existence. The first type, act utilitarianism, demands people to act in the best way that pleases many people despite personal and societal feelings. The second type, rule utilitarianism, takes care of law to administer fairness. Therefore, because Cathy is a deontological theorist such that she chooses to meet her family obligation, this theory would not yield different results. Utilitarianism theory would equally choose this decision because of its utmost benefit.

On the other hand, existentialism theory treats people as unique and isolates them to their own universe. It regards people as unexplainable beings and demands for the need to have freedom of choice and accountability for the outcomes of one’s actions. It is different from both deontological and utilitarianism theories because it is an atheistic theory. According to this theory, people have unique experiences only explained by those who experience them (Barnsley, 1972, p. 76). Therefore, according to Cathy’s ethical dilemma, Cathy is unique with a unique experience best explained by her. This theory approaches the dilemma from a different perspective that isolates Cathy’s dilemma. It would demand Cathy to work towards meeting her budget as opposed to attending her obligation. Therefore, it would treat Cathy’s children differently from their mother, thus, yield different results. Therefore, different theories would give different outcomes of this dilemma depending on their perspectives.

References

Barnsley, J. (1972). The social reality of ethics: The comparative analysis of moral codes. Scranton: Scranton.

Connolly, P. (2009). Ethics in action: A case-based approach. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Null, J. (2011). Curriculum: From theory to practice. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

Companion Animals

Introduction

Many people are fond of keeping pets. Different experts have acknowledged that there are various reasons that make people want to keep pets have verified this. There are a number of reasons why people opt to own pets. These reasons vary between different individuals in the society. There are also different reasons why people would like to own different animals for pets. For example, people who would like pets that help them in exercising have been known to keep dogs. This is because of the verity that dogs need to be walked and this gives the owner an opportunity of exercising when walking the dog. There is a distinct difference between a pet and other types of domesticated animals. Domesticated animals include sport animals, working animals, laboratory animals, and livestock animals. Apart from the pets, all other domesticated animals are kept for their economical value to the owner. Pets have a number of benefits to their owners. One of the benefits is that pets will offer companionship to people who lack enough social interaction with other people. To this effect, pets have been tremendously valuable to the elderly citizens who do not get sufficient social interaction. Most people who have pets have attributed their motivation of keeping them to emotional and physical benefits. However, scientists have started working to verify these ideas through medical research. Pets have become such a celebrated aspect of the society that there have been introduced the concept of therapy animals. This concept has been approved medically. It involves pets visiting people who are confined. In most cases, dogs are used in pet therapy. However, some people who are against the keeping of pets have argued that keeping pets is frightfully close to animal slavery.

Keeping Pets

One of the debates that have been predominant among pet keepers is whether a purebred pet is more favorable than a pet bought from the pet store. Most of the animals that are bought from the pet store are mixed breeds. Most of the people are of the view that a mixed breed pet has many advantages when compared to a purebred pet. The basis of their argument is that a mixed breed pet has a better disposition. This helps the pet to adapt to a new home. The other advantage of mixed breed pets is that they are cheaper and easier to obtain than purebred pets. People for their economical value rear purebred pets. This means that they are far more expensive and hard to obtain than the mixed breed pets. However, it is essential to put into the mind that there are instances when a mixed breed pet will fetch a higher price than a purebred pet. This is especially in the case where the mixed breed was purposely bred from other breeds, to produce a new and unique breed. For the purpose of a keeping a pet, the mixed breed is the best option for somebody who wants to keep a pet. There are two main reasons why mixed breeds are more apt to keep as pets than purebreds. One of the reasons is that mixed breeds will be easy to find in pet stores, and animal shelter. Mixed breed pets are also advantageous because they have minimal risk of being born with congenital diseases inherited from the parents. This is because the mating process that bears the mixed breed animal eliminates the genes that are defective. Pet stores and animal shelters are the best places to find mixed breed pets (Eades 10).

Contrary to what many people believe, animals that are got from animal shelters can be immensely beneficial to a pet keeper. One of the factors that make them extremely beneficial is the verity that they are got at a cheaper price. In fact, most of the animals that are got from an animal shelter are given for free. Free in this sense means that the pet keeper will have to agree to take care of animal, feed the animal, regularly vaccinate the animal, and spay neuter fees. Taking a pet from an animal shelter means that a person has saved the life of an animal. For a pet keeper who would like to have a mixed breed pet, there is also the advantage of getting a pet from an animal sanctuary instead of buying it from a pet store. This is because the animals that are in the animal shelter are in dire need of care. Pet store animals are always taken care of because the proprietors want the animals to remain healthy to attract the potential customers. On the other hand, animals that are found in the animal shelter have been abused, abandoned, neglected, and tortured. This makes the animals stray animals and cast offs. This has serious problems to both the society and the environment. These animals have gone through many problems before they are rescued by the animal shelters’ personnel. Animals that remain in the animal shelters contribute to pet overpopulation (Eades 15).

Pet overpopulation is a situation where the animal shelters have pets that exceed their capacity. Some of the factors that lead to pet overpopulation include irresponsible breeding, people refusing to adopt, and disposed off pets. When these animals are taken into the animal shelters, they wait for ideal people to adopt them. Sadly, some of the animals fail to get people who are willing to adopt them. Most of the animals that fail to get ideal adopters are the old animals that have been disposed of by their owners. This compels the authorities to euthanize the animals. About half of the animals in the shelters are euthanized. In order to avoid pet overpopulation and the inevitable euthanizing, people should spay and neuter the animals, adopt pets from legitimate sources, deeply consider the consequences and responsibilities of keeping a pet, and educate colleagues, family, friends, and children about overpopulation (Anchel 25).

Conclusion

Pets have played a prominent role in ensuring that lonely people are offered companion. There are pets that will even take care of their owners. Dogs have been known to walk blind people from one location to another. In the same respect, it is crucial for people to take care of the pets. People will obtain a pet only to mistreat the pet and later dispose it off. Another factor that people should try to address and avoid is the factor of pet overpopulation. Pets are the only animals that are not kept for their economical value. This makes the animals vulnerable animals, and they can be disposed off as soon as their owners are done with them. People should avoid treating their animals badly, and they should avoid contributing to pet overpopulation.

Works Cited

Anchel, Marjorie. Overpopulation of Cats and Dogs: Causes, Effects, and Prevention: Proceedings of a Conference, New York City, September 11 & 12, 1987. New York: Fordham University Press, 1990.

Eades, Deborah. Every Rescued Dog Has a Tale: Stories from the Dog Rescue Railroad. United States: Lulu, 2007.