The Project Approach Curriculum Model

Introduction
The project approach to curriculum refers to a teaching and learning method which is modeled on learners’ interests and effort to learn from practical experience. In this learning disposition, learners are encouraged to explore their interest in real world and nurture them through practical exploration and implementation (Clark & Hall, 2006). In this approach to learning, the role of teachers as educators changes to facilitators. They are supposed to merely facilitate children’s learning experience and not to provide them with what to do and answers.

According to Chard (1999), if children are given a topic of investigation by their teacher, their exploration experience is limited because they will all work on the same thing and there will be high tendency of copying from each other. The topic of Project approach to curriculum is of great importance because it tries to expose the desires, interests, and capabilities of learners. The use of traditional teaching model, to some extent, has failed to achieve the purpose of education. The failure of the system to expose and develop the talents and abilities of learners has led to frustrations an�d� �e�a�r�l�y� �c�a�s�e�s� �o�f� �s�c�h�o�o�l� �t�e�e�n�a�g�e� �s�c�h�o�o�l� �d�r�o�p� �o�u�t�s� �(�C�h�i�r�t�e�_,� �2�0�1�0�)�.� �T�h�e�r�e�f�o�r�e�,� �p�r�a�c�t�i�c�a�l� �a�p�p�r�o�a�c�h� �t�o� �l�e�a�r�n�i�n�g� �i�s� �e�s�s�e�n�t�i�a�l� �i�n� �i�d�e�n�t�i�f�y�i�n�g� �t�h�e� �i�n�h�e�r�e�n�t� �a�b�i�l�i�t�i�e�s� �i�n� �a� �l�e�a�r�n�e�r� �a�t� �a�n� �e�a�r�l�y� �a�g�e� �i�n� �l�i�f�e� �a�n�d� �f�a�c�i�l�i�t�a�t�i�n�g� �i�t�s� �d�e�v�e�l�o�p�m�e�n�t� �r�a�t�h�e�r� �t�h�a�n� �f�o�r�c�i�n�g� �t�h�e� �l�e�arner to appreciate what he/she has no interest and mental capabilities to comprehend.
Literature review
The origin of project approach to curriculum dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. It has evolved from its primitive form of finding the best way of occupying the mind of young children to current state where practical projects are integrated and included in school curriculum of young learners because of the evidence based research that project approach promotes cognitive, emotional, physical and social development. An interaction between the child and the environment promotes the child’s awareness of the world around him. Research shows that young children who are well exposed to their surrounding at an early age become fast learners in their subsequent years of academic pursuit (Kamii & DeVries, 1978).

Clark and Hall (2006) in their article titled “Changing Classroom Practice to Include the Project Approach” give an account of the origin of project approach to learning. They trace its origin in the research work of 1896 by the American philosopher, Dewey John who believed that reconstruction of the mind is the real essence of education and not a fixed concept for discovery. The article exposes the challenges faced in the implementation of the approach and its practical effects to the development of the mental capabilities of young learners and appreciation of the real world around them. Clark and Hall also give suggestions and recommendations to be adopted in the effective implementation of the project approach.

Katz and Chard (2000) in their book titled “Engaging Children’s Mind: The project Approach” argues that great learning conviction is achieved by doing and not merely listening and absorbing the content of a curriculum. According to them, project approach to learning achieves five major learning aims; life of the mind and intellectual goals, a balance of a learner’s activities, field work implementations, review , and display of what has been learned by the learner. Their perspective of project approach to learning is consistent with the mission of National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) which is to provide quality educational practices that support mental development of young chilren in their preschool age through practical exploration of the world around them. Their five learning aims provides a framework of policy development regarding an effective curriculum that meets the needs of young childen.

McQuillan et al.(2007) work “ Early Childhood: A Guide to Early Childhood Program Development” provides a guideline in the development of an efffective project learning curriculum for children. According to this work, culture, experience, and responsive adults are essential requirements for implementation of project learning. Culture is an embodiement of the social seting surounding a child. It determines the child’s thinking dispoitions, materials and social events to associate with, and language of communication. An effective learning environment for a child should enhance the continuation of the child’s cultural expeerience. The guide argues that problem-solving skills of young learners who are guided by responsive adults and teachers are much enhancegd than those to attempt practical projects without guidance. Also described in the guide is the historical perspectives of project approach to learning. Early educator and philosophers such as maria Montesori, Jean piaget, John Dewey, and Levy vygotsky and their contribution to early childhood education are described. This work provides a framework of reference in developing an effective integrative curiculum fo young learners

Kamii and DeVries (1978) in their book “Physical Knowledge in Preschool Education: Implications of Piaget’s Theory” describes the fundamental believes of Piaget on effective childhood learning such as the need for exploration of the environment by children. Piaget’s learning theory strongly emphasizes on the relationship between the learner and the environment. Thus the role of a teacher or a parent is to observe the child while playing to know the materials in the environment that interests him and integrate them in the next learning phase. The work of Kamii and DeVries (1978) open a window to the fundamental disposition of Jean Piaget on the role of the environment and social setting to the mental development of a child.

Jeffrey, Heather, and Sudha (2011), in their article “Measuring the Effects of Toys on the Problem-Solving, Creative and Social Behaviors of Preschool Children” describes the research on the effect of a toy as a play material to the cognitive and social development of the child. According to their research, toys were found to improve the child’s ability to interact with others and the environment in the next developmental stage. Their work underscores the importance of play material to cognitive and social development of a child. Other empirical literature shows that children who have enhanced social skills at an early age perform better in the next learning stage than those who lack (Hull, Capone & Goldhaber, 2002).

Current trends in project research and allignment with developmentally appropriate practices
From the above literature foundation, there has emerged new research which is shaping the needs of early education to children. The last thirty years have seen a tremendous growth in sicentific exploration and understanding of project approach to early childhood growth and learning behavior. According to Bowman, Donovan, and Burns (2001), children aged between 2 and 5 years are now more capable learners than 30 years ago due to intervention in childhood development. This disposition shows the need for more research geared towards developing new educational goals for young children.

The current trends in research recognize the dynamic nature of the needs for young and the nature of project curriculum which should be designed to meet the dynamics of the 21st century. The curriculum should be developed to ensure that children who are exposed to it attain excellence irrespective of their cultural background and pre-school experience. The 21st century is characterized by a fast growth in technology and changing social demographics in educational settings. Therefore children need to develop special adaptive skills to the changing demands of the world around them to achieve educational excellence (McQuillan et al., 2007).

There is also an observable growth in the number of young learners of English arising from the needs of cross-cultural integration and globalization. This trend underscores the need to integrate cultural and language differences in a project curriculum to expose the strengths of each child. Research shows that an inclusive and integrative program that recognizes learners’ cultural experiences and language differences exposes the strengths, abilities, and the needs of young learners (Tabors & Snow, 2001). Therefore teachers should develop an education program that supports children’s learning through their first languages while encouraging them to learn English. This differentiated setting affords each child an opportunity to develop socially and cognitively in preparation for the next learning stage (McQuillan et al., 2007).

Ongoing research also highlights the need for parents and teachers to be responsive to the environment around their children. Cording to the National Research Council (2001), social and emotional competencies of a child promotes learning. Therefore bridging the differences between school, home, and family promotes cultural pride and the enthusiasm to explore new things in a child in preparation for future learning.

The current trends in research also underscore those technological developments in fields like neuroscience promote interaction between nature and nurture (Shore, 1997). According to this research, exposure of a child to enabling environments such as early computing promotes cognitive development of the child and the ability to concentrate in a learning setting. Concentration is an essential skill that differentiates successful learners in future and failure.

The above trends in research and technology points out that the social and physical environment around a child serves as the first and most important laboratory of exploration for the child. The environment determines the child’s relationship with others, physical development, and psycho-motor development. It is therefore recommended that teachers and parents work in close association to expose the strengths and weaknesses of children in their learning process. Strengths should be capitalized for educational development while expediting weakness to prepare a child for future educational exploration. This concept forms the fundamental disposition of National Association for the Education of Young Children which aims at developing an enabling environment that nurtures social and cognitive development of pre-school children.

Methods for Inclusion of children with disabilities
Learning disabilities in children manifest themselves through isolation from others, inability to concentrate in class, inability to read curriculum content designed for his/ her school grade, and inability to pronounce or read English properly. Other disabilities that may inhibit normal learning of a child include visual and hearing impairment. These disabilities call for an integrative project curriculum which is capable of exposing these limitations and developing measures that expedites them. The following teaching strategies are recommended for effective inclusion of all children in a project learning setting.

Laying emphasis on learners’ interests
This is an effective inclusion strategy for children who have attention deficit. Such children are easily carried away or distracted by other things in their learning environment. Excessive cases of attention deficit may result in withdrawal from participation in class activities. In cases where some children in a project class setting are not attentive to the main class activities, a teacher needs to investigate through observation and inquiring from the child what best interests them. Observation is the main effective investigation method, especially when such children are caught off-guard doing other things instead of following class activities. In difficult situations, collaboration between teachers and parents is effective in identifying the interests of children with attention deficit in class activities.

Upon identification of interests of children with such disabilities, a teacher needs to integrate them in the project activities. Edmiaston (2006), provides an evidence-based illustration of the effectiveness of including learners’ interests in the learning curiculum. She presents a case of a drawing classroom setting in which one child was noticed disinterested in the class activity and instead appeared to stare at a multicoloured mosaic of window curtain. Further investigation revealed that the child gets attracted to colours and spents most of her time at home picking coloured flowers in the garden. The teacher chose in incllude colour painting in the project which in subsequent class activities proved an effective remedy for the little girl. It also emerged that other children also liked coloured painting than just drawing. This learning experience is consistent with ideas of McQuillan et al.( 2007).

According to them, following children’s interests in class activities helps in unlocking taleents and special attributes in learners which are then exploited for future carrier development. Harrington (1997) underscores that many people end up failures in proffesional carriers because of failure to identify themselves with their interests and special skills. He argues that an effective teaching curiculum should involve parents and teachers in identifyying the talents and special skills in early childhoood leaning. These attributes will then be used in identifying children with different future carriers rather than chosing for them.

Allowing learners to learn from their personal learning experiences
This strategy is effective in inclusion of visually impared children and those with hearing problems. In a general class acitivity, those who are visually impared are isolated from others because they can not see what is being done. In cases of children with hearing impairment, their colleagues without dissabilities find it hard to communicate with them because they cannot hear. In an inclussive setting, a teacher need to develop a project curriculum which entails the use of sense of touch and symbols and signs. Edmiaston (2006) proposes a curriculum that includes the study of texture of objects as an effective inclusion strategy for children with visual impairment.

Harrington (1997) gives an evidence-based approach to effective inclusion of children with hearing impairment by inclusion of sign language in the curiculum. Sign language helps those children without disabilities in communication with those with hearing impairment. Harrington (1997) describes a research- based evidence which shows that inclusion of children with hearing and visual disabilities in an inclussive class improved their social and cogntitive development. This is because, the affected children are able to play with others and communicate in situations that require consultation and discusion to accomplish a class activity.

Developing a focussed and collaborative effort
The collaboration involves early childhood educators, childhood teachers, caregivers, families, and children. Each of the aforementioned has different experiences with a child and thus their collaboration brings together varied experiences and skills of addressing the needs of a child in question. The collaboration is effective in creating a classroom community in which each child feels inclusive .According to Edmiaston,( 2006), a child who is a member of the community class develops a sense of obligation towards others, including those with disabilities. Edmiaston (2006) gives an evidence of the effectiveness of collaboration in a classroom setting. She describes an occasion of a fieldwork in which one child who wass participating was physically disabled as moved on a wheelchair.

Her collaegues had a sense of obligation towards her and made a lot of inquiries with their teacher on how she was going to be involved in each activity of the field trip so that she feels part of the team. They decided to schedule simple activities which did not involve a lot of movements and where rigorous motions were involved, she was selected to be a photographer. The experience made her feel valued, loved and appreciated for who she was.

Another addvantage of collaboration stems from the well of experience of collaborators with the child in question. The diverse experiences helps in exposing the likes, dislikes, interests, and special skills in a child. These attributes can then be exploited for future carieer development of the child. The rationale of this strategy is that it is not possible for a teacher a lone to know all attributes of a child. Thefore collaboration can help in exposing those attributes unseen by the teacher (Pearlman, 2009).

Documentation of learners experience
Documentation entails allowing children to express their learning experience through graphical, symbolic, and pictorial representations. This allows chilren to translate a theoretical concept into a real and tangible object. This strategic teaching methodology ws first expressed by Jean Piaget. Acording to Piaget, allowing children to learn by doing things practically creates a long lasting impact than theoretical teaching where children seat and listen to what the teacher says(Kamii &DeVries ,1978). McQuillan et al.( 2007) in their guide on the evidence of the success of project based learning in early childhood education in Connecticut observes that the impression created in the mind of a child in pictorial representation lasts longer that abstract concept created by listening to a teacher.

They described a setting in wehich children in a class of studying birds were asked to choose their birds of choice from the encyclopedia and mould them using plaster of paris and feathers. They noted that many children rememberd the features of their birds of choice after many years had passed because they moulded them practically. This illustration underscores that documentation of children’s learning experience in pictorial representation is an effective strategy for cognitive development. Edmiaston ( 2006) proposes that teachers should develop a curiculum to include documentation of learning experience after each topic is covered in class. Acording to her argument, expression of learning experience in terms painitings, pictures, drawings, and photomontage creates vivid pictures in the developing minds of young lerners which lasts longer than abstract concepts. This teaching strategy is efective in handling children with disabilities such as hearing impairment , attention deficit, and those with difficulties in expressing themselves in spoken english.

Arranging active roles for learners with disabilities
This learning strategy is effective in handling children who are slow learners. Banerji and Dailey (1995) underscores that effective implementation of an inclussive curiculum requires teachers to take note of children with disabilites and give them the first priority to present their views in their best way possible before others. Barnerji and Dailey (1995) uses as example of slow learners in an english class. According to their arqguement, teachers should encourage such children to express themselves first before others. Such children may require more time than others to tell what they have learned in class and thus they should be given the first priority when the attention of their colleagues is still fresh to understand. Harrington, (1997) proposes grouping of children in smaller learning and discusion groups to allow full participation of all children in their capabilities.

He opines that grouping should be objective to ensure that children with disabilities are mixed with others. Such smaller learning groups allow a teacher to identify the special needs of each child with ease and develop a learnig strategy suitable for each case. McQuillan et al.( 2007) in their research on the effectiveness of project approach to learing in the state of Connecticut conquers with Harrington on the effectiveness of grouping children in smaller learnig groups. Such grouping promotes interaction and confidence among learners which have profound effects on physical, emotional, and cognitive development of early childhood learners.

Conclusion
Project approach to early childhood education entails exploration of the interests of each child, taking note of those with disabilities and facilitating them to engage in what best suits their cases. The learning strategy involves development of an inclussive and flerxible curiculum which meets the needs of all children. Special cases of children with special needs include attention deficit, reading and learning difficulties like the case English lerners, physical disability, and visual and hearing impairments. This approach to early childhood learnig develops an effective strategy which ensures that the diverse needs of the aforementioned cases are taken care of.

Allowing learners to learn from their personal experiences, developing a foccued and collaborative effort, documentation of children’s learnig experience, and arranging active roles for learners with difficulties are proposed as the effective and inclussive teaching and learning strategies for early childhood learning. The proposed model benefits all children in an inclussive class because of the following reasons;
An inclussive community classroom created by colaborative effort of parents, teachers, children, and caregivers promotes a sense of obligation among children towards their colleagues which in turn promotes social and cognitite development of each learner. Children learn how to assist each other. The general knowledge drawn from the experience of collaborators with the child is essential in exposing the attributes of the child which makes it easier to develop effective strategies to meet his special needs.

Secondly, inclusion of children with disabilities in a general inclusive learning setting allows them to learn from those without disabilites.The latter also learns how to communicate with those with disabilities. The two way benefit promotes social development of both groups through interaction.
Thirdly, project based learning enhances real life practical skills in learners. The strategy allows children to translate theoretical concepts taught in class into practical applications in life. Based on the above benefits, I propose fully the implementation of the above curiculum in early childhood education.

References
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Shore,R. (1997). Rethinking the Brain: New Insights Into Early. Families and Work Institute, p.1-67.
Tabors, P., & Snow, C.E. (2001). “Young Bilingual Children. In S. N. Dickinson, Handbook of Early Literacy Research, (pp. p84-103). new York: Guilford Publications.

The Project Approach Curriculum Model 1

Behavioral Support Plans

Introduction
Early childhood education involves formal teaching of young people by people who are outside the family or in settings that are outside home. Most of the time it is involved with school but it occurs in many other settings where the child is able to gain knowledge. Early childhood can be defined as the age before normal schooling begins, which is at the age of 5 years in most countries. This education focuses on children learning through playing activities such as social games, art and dramatic play. This is why there are usually a lot of activities in schools where early childhood education is offered.

In regard to this, it is very important to be able to manage the behaviors of children at this early stage. This is the age at which the child is taught to differentiate between the right and the wrong. Therefore, it is very important to consider what the child is being taught in school. As children grow, they need to be provided with guidance and control on how to do things right. A child becomes what he or she will be taught in the learning centers and what the parents teach them. One of the most popular and important topics in the field of early childhood education is behavior management. Here I am going to discuss about the purpose of behavior management in early childhood education, strategies teachers need to use to establish the purpose of challenging actions and I am also going to include an individual support plan for each of the challenging behaviors.

Purpose of behavior management in early childhood education settings
One thing that would make both the teachers and parents frustrated is the inability to manage a young child’s behavior. Behavior management refers to the systems of discipline that teachers and schools put in place in order to teach students to control and control their behaviors. The major purpose of behavior management in young children is to assist them to display behaviors that are conducive to learning and teach behaviors that are essential and appropriate for school and home settings. In order to be effective in administering behavior management in children, one needs to be very consistent because children have a tendency of forgetting things easily. Regardless of the technique chosen to do this, it is important to stick to the plan for it to work effectively. When children realize that you are not consistent, they might not be devoted in making the right choices (Drecktrah, 2008).

For a class to be successful behavior management skills are very essential and for a teacher to be successful in whatever he or she is doing, a plan of behavior management must be set. By doing this, it provides an alternative definition of the concept of control in the early childhood context. Through this, children are given guidance on which behaviors are good and those that are not. Behavior management in children also helps them to know the limits and boundaries, which enable them to develop self-control and self-discipline. When in early childhood, children communicate their needs through their behaviors. Through this, a child may develop a behavior that is seen as unacceptable in terms of the boundaries and limits set by the early childhood services. Therefore, it is important to incorporate some limits and boundaries in the management of the behavior of a child.

Behavior management in early childhood can be done in many ways. For example, it may be done through rewards, which act as effective motivators in managing behaviors in children. Giving children praise is also another effective way of managing their behaviors. When a child gets praise from the teacher, the child develops confidence, which help him or her to develop good behaviors. Giving praise to children makes the teacher take less time in asking them to do what they are supposed to do. When the teacher complements one child, others like following the child’s behavior because they think it is the most preferred by the teacher. This way, the teacher is able to develop good behaviors in the children.

Making children understand that they control their behaviors in the classroom increases their confidence and they are encouraged to make the right decisions (Hunter, 2013). Therefore, it is important when the teacher reminds children that they have the ability to make right choices. This way, the teacher makes the children have confidence in making the right choices and in turn improves their behaviors. Behavior management involves engaging the children in what the teacher is teaching on behaviors. That is why early childhood education involves the teacher engaging with the children and always has a lot of activities like playing. When the teacher puts lessons that help all the students to be familiar to the material, the chances that the children will not choose appropriate behaviors as a way of getting other things to do will be reduced.

Since early childhood classrooms have boundless energy, it is good to utilize the energy by connecting it to some important concepts, which in turn improves the child. Proactive approaches to early childhood behavior interventions helps to change the behaviors of the children into something positive. Proactive approaches are thorough in in the deliberation and they help to address the misbehavior in a more effective manner (Hunter, 2013). This approach is usually geared towards a specific child’s behavior. It is essential that children at an early age are given individualized instructions as to where errors in their behavior lie so that they can understand what proper behavior is. Some of the behaviors children are involved in are very challenging and the teacher or the parent must handle them with care since they may have a great impact on their lives. For example, at an early age, children are fond of acquiring everything they come across. If a parent shows the child that he or she can get everything without there being a limit, the child may have a challenged life after. It is therefore important for the parent to show their children what is only important for them at that age. Some children also have a problem controlling their temper and they may end up screaming or kicking items on their way.

Strategies that teachers might use to establish the function of challenging actions
There are different strategies teachers need to use in order to establish the purpose of the challenging behaviors in children. This can be done through a functional behavioral assessment whose purpose is to describe, identify and predict the purpose of the children’s behavior. Some of these strategies include:
Defining the challenging behavior: To establish the purpose of the challenging behavior, the teacher must first define it in observable terms. The teacher can do this by including characteristics and examples of the behavior that can be measured. For example, a child’s behavior may be described as temper tantrums, which in more specific terms would be kicking the toys or screaming. The teacher is also supposed to determine for how long the behavior happens and how often (Drecktrah, (2008).

Analyze the learning environment as it impacts child’s behavior: This involves carefully analyzing the physical environment, which can unveil information that is important in understanding the underlying cause of the behavior of the child. Some of the features that can be considered include those related to the transition between daily activities schedule, staffing patterns and classroom floor plan. These activities may help the teacher to understand the areas which impact the child’s behavior.
Interview others: Those who can be interviewed include parents, other teachers or adults who have responsibilities for the child. This interview allows people who have contact with the child give information about the child in details. The interview also helps the teacher to understand the events that encourage the problem behavior to occur. The teacher therefore is able to know what to do for the child in order to improve the behaviors (Drecktrah, 2008).

Individual support plan for the challenging behaviors
Behavior intervention or support plans are put in place in order to help the teachers deal with poor behaviors in children. These plans are aimed at promoting the child’s success and participation in daily activities and routines. As seen earlier some children have a problem in controlling their temper, while others want everything at their disposal where they do not know how to make the correct choices. There are certain things that can be done to improve the behaviors of such children and prevent such behaviors occurring again once they grow up. Children with such behaviors probably do not have someone who can help them make the right choices. Their parents may also be an influence to their behavior where for example, if the child asks for anything, he or she is given. Those who are not able to control their anger may not have had someone to train them how to handle their anger or when they were involved in such misbehavior, no one restricted them from doing it (TACSE, 2011).

In order to prevent this from happening again, both the teacher and the parents must work together in ensuring the behavior of the child improves. For example, the parent should put a limit on the child on the things they have in possession. The parent may also reduce the things the child has in possession and show them the reasons they should not be having them. The teacher on the other hand should know how to handle children with such high tempers by showing them how wrong it is. The teacher may also punish the child for behaviors such as kicking items so that they do not repeat that behavior again. Commending other children with good behaviors will also help those with bad behaviors because they will try to emulate those that are commended by the teacher. The teacher should also help children with such behaviors individually by talking to them. Since it is an activity of the teacher and the parent, they should both consult each other in order to determine whether the behavior of the child is improving (TACSE. 2011). This way, they will be able to improve the child’s behavior.

Roles of the teacher in designing and implementing a behavior plan
When it comes to implementing the behavioral plans, some of them work while others fail and end up making either the teacher or the child become frustrated. Both the teacher and the child are responsible for implementing the behavior of the child but in this section I will look at the role of the teacher in implementing these plans. One big role the teacher has on implementing these behaviors is focusing mainly on the positives. When the teachers practice giving positive feedback to children, it makes them change their own perception and thus change their behaviors, which in turn will change their future. Another thing the teacher ought to have is consistence.

Those teachers who are able to be consistent and can follow through every time are very successful in their roles. This helps especially in case of those children who like pushing limits to see how far they can push, but when the teacher is firm, they always change those behaviors. It is also important for the teacher to be flexible in his or her expectations. When the teacher is flexible and willing to make acceptable changes for the children will set both of them for success. The teacher has to keep in mind that all the children are different and thus they respond to behavior changes differently. For example, some children may not respond to motivations for behavior change like others do. Therefore, the teacher should fully understand his or her children and apply methods of behavior change that are appropriate to them. This calls for individualized plan where the teacher deals with the child on a personal basis. When all these roles are incorporated together, the results will be successful and the children will have good behavioral changes.

In conclusion, behavior support plans are very essential in shaping the lives of children at an early age, which in turn shapes their future. Teachers, parents and other caregivers have the biggest roles in shaping the behaviors of children. Children learn by following examples and thus the examples we set for them are what they follow. Therefore, early childhood education is equally important like the university or other higher learning education systems.

References
Drecktrah, M. E. (2008). Functional Assessment: Analyzing Child Behavior. Retrieved on 5th November 2013 from http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhood/article_view.aspx?ArticleID=255
Hunter, N. (2013). About Behavior Management in Early Childhood Education. Retrieved on 5th November 2013 from http://www.ehow.com/about_6386954_behavior-management- early-childhood-education.html
TACSE. (2011). The Process of Positive Behavior Support (PBS). Retrieved on 5th November 2013 from http://www.challengingbehavior.org/explore/pbs/step5.htm

BEHAVIORAL SUPPORT PLANS 2

Running head: BEHAVIORAL SUPPORT PLANS 1

Comparison of public and private school implementation of SEL

Abstract

Social and emotional learning is a process that children and adults develop fundamental skills needed to navigate life. The research question was the significance of SEL in development of children. The study looked specifically at the role of the school organization in SEL implementation. The major finding in the study is that SEL was implemented well in private setting than in public schools. These results are significant in informing on development of SEL policy to improve SEL implementation in schools.

Comparison of Public and Private School Implementation of SEL

Introduction

This research compared the implementation of SEL in public and private Schools. It looked at the attitude of both the teachers and management with the intention of establishing the pedagogical that has posed as obstacles in the implementation of SEL in public schools.
The emotional and the well-being of children is critical component for growth and development. It is imperative for the early education providers to incorporate social and emotional learning in the development of curriculum. This program is effective in children as it equips them with the ability to express emotions and interact with peers. Social and emotional learning is a holistic education that is recommended for all the children.
Methods
This research will involve the use of mixed research design. This is the ideal design for achieving the aim of the study by both quantitative and qualitative methods.
The qualitative method is selected in the study as it enables the researchers to capture the perspectives of teachers that include their attitudes and feelings towards SEL implementation.
Some of the questions in the questionnaire sought to get the opinions of teachers on the time that is required to provide instruction on SEL. The quantitative approach was employed in the study to gather data on various issues that affected the implementation of SEL in schools. This involved analyzing the preschool programs regularly assess the learning and development of children.
Results
Although teachers in both private and public schools appreciate the importance of Social Educational Learning in children, there are many issues that affect full implementation. These schools have a major responsibility of enhancing social learning and intelligence. As concerning the acceptance of social and emotional learning and foundation, the study found that having proper foundation in the early years of child growth is a major step to SEL realization. To improve on implementation of SEL, the schools’ management and teachers need to be trained to support the program especially in public schools. The major finding in the study is that SEL was implemented better in the private setting than in public schools.

Discussion

Social emotional learning in general is effective for the wholesome development of children. It is widely accepted that SEL plays a critical role in effective growth and development of children. SEL enables children to grow and become confident and responsible within the society. This is why the implementation should be improved so that both children in public and private schools benefit. However, several factors within the schooling system can affect the integration of SEL during the early stages of child’s learning process. These may, therefore, have an impact on their social, emotional and academic development.

Conclusions

From the result and the discussion, it was found that SEL is highly appreciated by the school organizations that consist of teachers and their management. The SEL implementation is better done in private schools than in public schools. It is very important to establish the foundation of emotional competence in children when young.

References
Andrews N., & Slate, K., (2002). “Public & Private Pre-Kindergarten Programs: A Comparison of Student Readiness”. Educational Research Quarterly 25 (3): 59

IMPLEMENTING SEL IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOL 4

Running head: IMPLEMENTING SEL IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOL 1

How Can I Engage Purposeful Play in My Classroom Setting?

Introduction
The teaching force in early childhood education according to various authors is mainly through diploma training, especially in Singapore. For the rest of the countries, they emphasize on a four-year training period for staff wishing to work at early childhood centres. This is because early childhood education specializes in teaching young children aged between three to eight years. As a result, there is need to change the current teaching environment in order to be more suitable and favourable to the young learners I intend to teach early education. Ensuring the teachers are diploma or degree qualified, guarantees they can provide the environment needed as they can control the contents, practices, and theories they are taught.

In a parliamentary debate in Singapore, it was resolved that improving early childhood education requires investigating teacher’s quality, resources required, the curriculum, acquiring support, and quality assurance. This statement was also supported under the belief that a teacher’s quality plays a crucial role in ensuring that early childhood education is life-long (Marjory, Yvonne & Hoi, 2011).
As a result, I upgraded my professionalism from one of the many avenues by pursuing further training. From the training I got, I realized including purposeful play in my classroom activities would result to effective and efficient delivery of early childhood education to my young, active and curious learners.

Teacher Research
In education, teacher research is termed as a long tradition practice that is legitimate. Within this practice, inquiries are conducted by educators in relation to their operations in school and early childhood settings. The working conditions and practices, therefore, provide great opportunities for sustained inquiry. Teacher research being a self-regulating activity means it can commence with enhancing educators daily teaching practices before transforming their professional lives under educational policy. However, in the course of research, educators have identified various challenges and potential values as listed below by Meier and Henderson (2007).

“If I did research on my own teaching, who would believe me? After all, I’d be talking about myself.”
“Teachers should have a voice in educational research. We have an insiders’ view into teaching and learning that university researchers and policymakers can never have.”
“I can’t really do research myself; I don’t know statistics.”
“I want to learn methods to do research on questions that matter to me in my daily teaching life.”
“How can teachers have time to do research? It is not realistic to the way our work lives are structured.” (Meier & Henderson, 2007, p. 12-13).

Mostly, teacher research policy used in Singapore educational system with regard to early childhood teaching involves use of questionnaires and interviews from supervisors. Teacher research also involves personal assessment to evaluate teacher’s impacts on kindergarten learning capabilities. The performance of the pupils directly translates to the teachers’ capability to guide them through the whole learning process. Therefore, pupils’ performance at various stages can also be used as teachers’ research methodology. Early childhood educators, caregivers, administrators, and teachers are professionals possessing unique skills and knowledge, which they share in order to be more effective.

According to Meier and Henderson (2007, p. 13), “Teacher research makes sense and adds value when incorporated within normal teaching practice. Teacher research is also a self-regulating activity, meaning that it begins with teachers themselves. It can enhance daily practice to improve our teaching, transform early childhood educators’ professional lives, and affect educational policy” (Meier & Henderson, 2007, p. 13). For a teacher to be rated as good in performing his/her duty, it is crucial to ask questions with regard to practices while collecting evidence and responses from students. The evidence can include his/her performance, behaviour, teaching styles, and how they take practical actions, which as well constitutes to teacher research techniques (Marjory, Yvonne & Hoi, 2011).

Achieving accountability among teachers requires consistency and systems about inquiry as well as human support. These factors are recommended as they encourage exchange of ideas and gathering different and diverse responses from students. Teacher research practice thus provides an opportunity for professional educators to identify a pathway through which teaching methods and languages can assist in reaching early childhood goals and objectives. Thus, this practice can be defined as a study of teachers’ individual interactions with the children they are teaching, their families, and colleagues.

Rationale
The ministry of Education in Singapore acknowledges that growth and development in the early years plays a vital role among children. At this stage, they inquire, explore, and discover things, environment, and people surrounding them. Therefore, early childhood education arouses their sense of wonder and curiosity. As they discover the surroundings, they learn and acquire new social skills, which also play a crucial role of building their confidence and self-esteem while learning depositions, which they remain with for the rest of their lives. All children identified as confident and eager to learn are termed as ready for the next step in learning stages, thus likely to perform exceptionally in school (MoE, 2012).

The teacher research suggests communication, daily interactions with family members, caregivers, and fellow teachers as recommended changes within the classroom setting in order to enhance the role of purposeful play. To incorporate purposeful play in the classroom, I purpose to pay more attention to the children rather than focus on the routine, especially if it does not yield to positive results. Through this, it will be easier for me to formulate a plan including when to introduce purposeful play, how to introduce it, and how it will affect my delivery of early childhood education in short-term as well as in the long-run. Another importance identified by (Meier & Henderson, 2007, p. 13) is that, “Teacher research is a viable and critical example of educational research. At the same time, it also serves as an instrument of teachers’ professional development and educational reform.”

A system exists to facilitate early childhood education. Thus, I realized that incorporating purposeful play in the classroom should not be inhibited by the system. As a teacher, I researched on natural ways of integrating the practice. For example, I plan to change my interactions with the learners and maintain a clear communication line with other parties involved in a child’s life. In addition, I plan to change the classroom environment in order to encourage incorporation of different and diverse types of plays, which yielded positive and long lasting changes.

Thus, I will change furniture arrangements in the classroom. To reduce distractions as children’s attention is easily influenced, I have already changed the classroom setting from an open to closed concept. Accompanied with teacher research tools and habits, I plan to stop reacting but rather, pay more attention and deepen as well as clarify professionalism in my delivery of early childhood education. Marjory and Maria (2009) assert Singapore’s Ministry of Education proposal on teachers maintaining high levels of confidence in order to teach and nurture early learners acquiring early childhood education through plays, music, drawings and art among others. The practice of purposeful play is emphasized by Meier & Henderson (2007, p. 15) in the following precept;
“When early childhood educators have knowledge of teacher research, and see it as a valid domain of study, they provide themselves with a framework for beginning this work, a sense of history on the teacher research movement, and a way to talk about what they do in classrooms as a part of a tradition of inquiry.”

Effectiveness of Communication
Helping children to build their confidence levels throughout the challenging tasks is a teacher’s main role and responsibility. As a teacher, I realized this is expected of me. Therefore, I will ensure children perform their duty in the right way as soon as possible through the right communication modes and channels I use in the classroom. Regardless of teacher research methodology that I employed and the professionalism I used, I have realized that the education system may not be effective without effective communication. A high quality pre-school education requires various types of plays as they stimulate learning of languages as well as social-emotional skills.

With such a realization, I plan to customize the communication to be effective for learners to understand and utilize various plays to reach out to diverse students’ personalities. Plays are usually fun but also purposeful as they evoke a sense of curiosity and the seed to learn. Desired Outcomes of Education listed various competencies within the education system. Producing confident people with strong sense of what is wrong and right, resilient, adaptable, and able to communicate effectively and efficiently should be the main purpose for educators providing early childhood education (Richardson, 2010).

Educators in this stage of human development have employed various types of plays. Realizing this disposition, I plan to develop various plays to be used by learners in achieving these goals. First, the unoccupied plays used when the learner is not playing. Singapore education system mostly recommends such a play to ensure learners are inducted to concentration skills at that early age. This plays involves learners engaging in random unmonitored movements necessarily without a defined objective. Despite lack of definitive approach, this play sets and prepares the learner for future play explorations. Secondly is the independent or solitary type of play utilized in Singapore at all levels majorly early childhood.

In this approach, teachers leave students alone and independently to keep themselves busy and entertained. This type is used to teach students how to become self-sufficient and independent in decision-making later in life. Thirdly is the onlooker type of play where children observe others as they play and learns to do things from observatory skills. Forth is the parallel type of play where children are in the same room though having less social contact plays simultaneously in turns. Lastly is the associative and cooperative play where children are involved with each other at any stage of the play. This helps them develop social bonds and ties among them. In addition, they trust each other and the play enhances interpersonal interactions among them (Smithrim & Rena, 2009).

Learning Environment
The environment in which children access early childhood education should ensure that the following factors are achieved. A child should be able to identify a wrong and right, have the will to share and participate with fellow students thus, be able to relate and socialize with the rest of the students. The environment should also ensure children’s curiosity and exploration senses are aroused, that they are able to talk in a comprehensive manner as well as have listening skills while being comfortable, happy, and confident about themselves. Lastly, it should have developed physical co-ordination whereby children can participate in healthy habits they also enjoy, especially if art activities and experiences are different and diverse. More importantly, early childhood education should encourage children to grow up loving and respecting their family members, educators, the school facilities and their friends (Wright, 2010).

The classroom environment requires change so as to enhance purposeful play in children. As identified by Mills (2007, p. 25), “Not only are the research methods undergoing change, research perspectives and theoretical informants are similarly broadening and reconceptualising.”
There are six learning areas I have identified after studying the various responsibilities plays contribute to child’s development process, and are the most important in a learning framework. The outlined areas I identified include numeracy, developing motor skills, language and literacy, aesthetics and creative expressions, discovery of the world and social as well as emotional development.

From these areas, as an educator providing early childhood education I plan to ensure and teach my learners how to persevere, reflect, appreciate, invent, engage and have the sense of wonder and curiosity. Thus, I plan to develop different types of plays am assured will equip children with skills, knowledge, and dispositions with regard to language, culture, and values within their homes, community, school and neighbourhoods (Marjory & Maria, 2009). These plays involve various formations, since I have identified the capabilities of children and type of plays, this process though challenging will be successful. In addition, as Mills (2007) observes in Edwards writings, the strategy for change is a complex process, which has to be undertaken as indicated below:
And so complex are the settings of practice that it is unlikely that one set of research lenses, whether shaped by, for example, psychology or sociology, can do justice to what expert practitioners have to take into account as they make informed judgments in practice. For research to be able to illuminate and clarify practice, it needs to be able to accommodate the complexities of practice and its contexts (Edwards, 2000, p. 186).

Teaching and Learning Tools (Methodology)
Learners need to have a sense of belonging as well as security, which can only be provided by their teachers. With such a realization, I utilized various plays permitted in Singapore in providing early childhood education mainly including music, speech, and art. For children to share their feelings, express ideas and opinions, show interests in various areas, and inquire why certain happenings are experienced, and convey their various meanings, I plan to encourage them to use creative music and art drawings, such as symbols and markings. Conversely, I plan to use investigations; demonstrations, speeches, and communication in acquiring and sharing of healthy and educational habits as well as ideas with the children (Anderson & Patti, 2005). This method will help the pupils in thoroughly understanding the classroom setting and improve their performance.

Based on the outlined six learning areas, I have discovered and thus plan to use the above-mentioned plays to enhance children’s learning capabilities. I plan to encourage them to show interests to the surroundings enquire and find out why certain things occur and how they happen through conducting simple investigations, and lastly I plan to encourage them to develop positive attitude towards the world they live in. Aesthetics and creative expression encourage movements and activities through art and music, which I highly encourage among children. I will also encourage children to create music and art in their learning process. Experiments, movements, and imaginative skills will thus be developed. Lastly, I plan to provide a platform where children share their ideas, opinions, and feelings with regard to the art, music, movements, and experiments. Language and literacy area aims at developing listening skills. It also aims at developing speech and reading skills in order to convey or communicate information and messages. I will also encourage the use of drawings, symbols, and markings to encourage conventional spelling, write invented ideas, and communicate them and the information to the educator and fellow students (MoE, 2012).

With regard to motor skills and development, I will encourage the participation in physical activities. Demonstrating control, co-ordination, and balance during gross and fine motor tasks and activities as well as developing healthy habits at home, school and public places that are safe and educational also include plays in imparting early childhood education. Recognizing and using simple patterns and relationships, numbers during day-to-day activities, and experiences as well as basic simple spatial concepts and shapes constitutes of numeracy area that I will employ in teaching. Lastly, developing and being aware of a personal identity, managing personal behaviours and emotions, showing love and respect across diverse surroundings will be my prime methodology. In addition, I will use communication, interaction and building relations with family, friends, teachers and neighbours as well as taking responsibility for ones actions to constitute plays in social and emotional development in early childhood education (Jillian, 2006).

Singapore curriculum framework is based on the belief that children are curious, active, and competent students. As a result, it advocates for guidance, teaching and learning processes in imparting high quality early childhood kindergarten education. From this approach, I will use the below diagram to ensure the maximum knowledge is impacted to the lives of children at very tender age.


I will develop a kindergarten curriculum based on the children’s understanding capability and learning shapes as well as practices in the classroom. This is because of the effectiveness and efficiencies in developing and extending a child’s thinking and learning abilities. Such a curriculum will enable me to make sounder and informed decisions, and formulate plans able to facilitate meaningful and educational learning experiences within and beyond my classroom. In Singapore, the following vital considerations are paid attention in formulating a high quality kindergarten curriculum; integrated approach to learning, holistic development, children as constructors of knowledge, engage children in thorough and purposeful learning plays. In addition, authentic learning based on high quality interactions between teachers, family member, friends, and children will be emphasized in my teaching. I will encourage purposeful plays in my classroom in the kindergarten curriculum as it is not only enjoyable to the learners but also requires active participation, development of learning objectives, and facilitation from the teachers or educators (Hodge, 1980).

I will use various methods to assess the effectiveness of the changes in planning early childhood education purposeful play practices. They include critical reflective diary, observations, questionnaires, and surveys among others. For the purpose of this study, I will use observations, critical reflective diary and interviews which constitute the most suitable methods. This is because observations and interview conducted among children, fellow teachers, and parents can be recorded in order to form a critical reflective diary a process I am planning to employ and use extensively. I will base observations on the children’s learning and developing procedures. This will assist in collecting documentaries and information, which upon recording on a critical reflective diary can be interpreted in my classroom. After interpretation, I will utilize the findings in researching what the children understand during their early childhood classroom lessons, what they know, and what is the most challenging for them in the course of learning (Hodge, 1980).

I will conduct interviews among the children in order to find out which learning areas they find more favourable and easy to understand. In addition, I will interview fellow teachers to assist in identifying areas that need more attention, as well as more purposeful plays I will utilize in the classroom. With regard to interviews among the parents, I will use them in acquiring and collaborating information gathered from their children, their friends, family members, and the community at large. Interviews are therefore methods of collaborating information, ideas, and opinions gathered from interviewees in order to enhance the children’s learning abilities in acquiring early childhood education (Hodge, 1980).

Literature Review
As earlier stated, early childhood educators comprise diploma-trained teachers. According to Chan (2009), Oberhuemer (2005) and Urban (2009), such qualifications for staff members handling sensitive children who are sensitive yet curious may be less favourable. In Singapore, early childhood educators are involved with children aged between three and six years of age. As a result, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Community Development, Youth, and Sports have full control on the accreditation of programs and teachers involved in delivery of early childhood education. Bruner (1996), Erikson (1963), Ainsworth 1989, Piaget 1971, and Bowlby (1969) agreed that, integrating practices with theory could enhance the learning process in early childhood. Thus, if I integrate purposeful plays in my classroom activities, I can enhance the children’s understanding with regards to the concepts I teach them as well as encourage them to communicate their individual ideas and opinions (Marjory, Yvonne & Hoi, 2011).

Meir and Henderson (2007) having defined teacher research acknowledge that, besides following a routine system, incorporating changes in steps based on the changes required as per the plan can solve various hiccups in delivery of early childhood education. It was therefore crucial for me to research, plan and integrate purposeful play in my classroom as well as other necessary and applicable changes in order to ensure the changes are not too drastic for the children to adapt. I decided to seek parents, caregivers and fellow teachers’ opinions and ideas in order to make the process more natural as I embed purposeful play in my system or routine.

Ethical Issues
The ethical issues I had to consider related to introducing purposeful plays in the classroom included having a better understanding of the teaching practice and its impact on the children, being more aware of children and educator’s personal values, biases, influences, and beliefs, and how they can affect either of them especially vulnerable children. Other ethical issues I found affirmative were, including previous understandings from my theoretical teachings with current comprehensions from including purposeful plays in order to deepen insights that are not contradicting, and develop my professionalism while raising expertise levels in providing early childhood education. While conducting research, various aspects require consideration especially those touching actively to the participants (children). Teachers conducting research use photographs, human resource utilities and materials directly associated with children. In order to appropriately involved children, they ought to feel part and parcel of the whole process as identified by Conroy and Harcourt (2009) in the following precept.

“Any critical discussion on the issue of seeking informed assent must begin with a lens that focuses on the theoretical underpinnings that are being used as frameworks in which to undertake research with young children. We are committed to the view that it is the responsibility of researchers who wish to include the child standpoint under the auspices of the UNCROC (United Nations, 1989), Rinaldi’s (2001) image of child, and/or the new sociology of childhood (Mayall, 2002) to ensure that children are indeed being considered as research partners and that we are genuine in our attempts to work with children in research” (Conroy & Harcourt, 2009, p. 137).

By using purposeful plays, I hope to contribute realistic goals and objectives on integrating purposeful plays in the classroom. Finally, I hope to ensure that this is a practice enhancing personal growth to the children and educators as well as an ethical teacher ought to (Marjory & Maria, 2009). Jane Bone (2005, p. 131) has identified various aspects to be considered as ethical issues in dealing with children. In addition, identification of various ways of dealing with children is through research as discussed earlier on. Bones asserts that,
“Arriving at the centre with a bunch of forms is not good enough. Being transparent involved talking, discussing and explaining, and not just to parent group but to parents individually, especially if they had concerns about the research. Sometimes, the line between being transparent and not being respectful of the research became rather fine and questions proliferated.” (Bones, 2005, p. 131)

References
Anderson, A., & Patti, B. (2005). Learning to Teach Using Art-based Methods, Physical and Health Education Journal, 11(4), 1-67
Bone, J. (2005). An ethical journey: Rights, relationships and reflexivity. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 30(1), 1–5.
Conroy, H. & Harcourt, D. (2009). Informed agreement to participate: beginning the partnership with children in research. Early Child Development and Care, 179(2), 157–165.
Hodge, P. (1980). Community Problems and Social Work in Southeast Asia: The Hong Kong and Singapore Experience, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Jillian, R. (2006). Leadership in Early Childhood, New York: Allen & Unwin Publishers.
Marjory, E., & Maria, L. (2009). Music in Early Childhood Education: Teachers’ Levels of Confidence and Happiness, Singapore Journal of Music Education, 12(6), 3-21.
Marjory, E., Yvonne, Y., & Hoi, B. (2011). Encouraging a Culture of Research in Practicing Teachers in Singapore. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(1), 355-364.
Mayfield, M. (2003). Continuity among Early Childhood Programs: Issues and Strategies from an International View, Early Childhood Educators, 79(4), 14-234.
Meier, D.R. & Henderson, B. (2007). Framing inquiry—and staying close to children, In Learning from young children in the classroom: The art and science of teacher research, pp. 5–15. NY: Teachers College Press.
Mills, G.E. (2007). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Chapter 2: Deciding on an area of focus.
Ministry of Education (MoE). (2012). Nurturing Early Learners: A Curriculum Framework for Kindergartens in Singapore, Ministry of Education, Singapore.
Richardson, A. (2010). Exploring Text through Student Discussions: Accountable Talk in the Middle School Classroom, English Journal, Early Childhood Edition, 2(2), 11-46.
Smithrim, K., & Rena, U. (2009). “Listen to Their Voices: Research and Practice in Early Childhood Music” Singapore Journal of Music Education, 20(1), 21-67.
Wright, M. (2010). The Secure Pre-schooler: Nurturing Creativity with Courage, Wisdom with Responsibility, Canadian Psychology, 2(1), 231-240.

PURPOSEFUL PLAY IN CLASSROOM 13

Running head: PURPOSEFUL PLAY IN CLASSROOM 1

My peers and to some extent my parents made learning how to read in my childhood possible. My parents bought animal toys to all children in the house for play purposes. These were majorly domestic animals. We could organize play sessions and relate the animals with their sounds and each child, during the play sessions, was to produce the sound of the animal he or she had during the time of play. This played an essential role in understanding between the toy world and the reality. Animals’ names were the first names I ever learnt through organized plays with my peers. Furthermore, instead of reading bedtime stories, my siblings and I organized story telling session. Every individual had a night to share a story and the requirement was that the story had to be animal stories. During these sessions dramatization was an element that made a story interesting. Those with dramatization skills equipped the rest of us with the skills that were essential. Alphabetical charts, spelling bees and reading storybooks aloud greatly contributed to my learning in my early childhood education. My parents helped in reciting the alphabets, learning how to hold a pen, rewriting alphabets and words from pictures. Spelling bees helped in understanding concepts as reading skills were developed by reading out numerous storybooks in class.

Children in Main town acquired literacy skills through exposure to books and they became literate before they knew how to read. This close relationship with book was essential in helping them develop interest in reading and understanding of information. Children in Roadville acquired their literacy skills through exploration of colours, shapes and texture in their environment. The books in this community contained simple bible stories, real life stories about with lessons drawn from their surroundings. These stories were read during bedtime and children were taught how to copy the pictures by drawing or writing. Children in Trackton had an entirely human environment. They acquired reading and writing skills through imitation of the modes of communication in their surroundings. Storytelling and school education contributes greatly to the understanding of complex items. The literacy skills acquisition technique is often sluggish since this mode of socialization requires written instead of orally taped stories. My literacy acquisition experience when compared with those of the children in these communities, acquires a close relationship with that of the children in Trackton. This is because the parents in Trackton administer minimal efforts in the development of their children’s literacy skills. My parents, like those in Trackton, only concentrated on ensuring that my school supplies were always available. Despite helping me in reciting and writing the alphabets, they never focussed on the degree to which I understood any material that I was reading. My peers and teachers were essential in the development of my oratory and writing skills through stories and reading aloud as in the case of Trackton.

The narrative skills that I acquired in my preschool days were essential in distinguishing fictionalized stories from real life narratives. I realized that storytelling involves the suspension of reality and the framing of old events in a new context. Despite the fact that I had skipped learning how to label objects, the listing of features and giving explanations to different concepts, my ability to conceptualize and easily comprehend difficult terminologies were essential in learning of new things in school. Narratives play an significant part in cognitive development. This is because an individual learns to creatively relate the stories learnt with the surrounding. The ability to find relationships between words and objects helped in the development and retention of my analogical reasoning practices. With such an elaborate mind, I was able to adapt to creativity in language use in metaphors, regeneration of prospects and examination of functions and settings of items within the school environment.
For my children I would ensure the adoption of all crucial aspects in the acquisition of communicative competence essential in their development. This will be through embracing different aspects borrowed from Maintown, Roadville and Trackton. This is because, the Maintown way of training children in the acquisition of literacy skills will ensure that children develop a close relationship with books. Through this method, my children will learn to give attention to books and information drawn from these books. Furthermore, they also learn to listen while waiting for their turn to respond to questions. The techniques acquired from the Roadville community would be essential in helping my children recognize the relationship between colourful decorations and pictures on the wall with reality. Children will also acquire skills through conversations with adults especially during bedtime story sessions where they learn how to read and understand storybook contents. The understanding of the relationship between the narratives and reality will be essential in referencing and labelling different aspects. Through the acquisition of storytelling techniques as in the case of Trackton, my children will learn how to interpret literacy events in relation to the sociocultural context and adequately understand patterns such as caregiving roles and gender issues among other societal factors.

Surname 1

Critique Article

The article A tablet computer for young children? Exploring its viability for early childhood education seeks to explore the viability of using tablets to teach children during their early learning years. The research was carried out to children in preschool by assessing their ability to use tablet to draw. (Couse and Chen 2010).
What is the problem statement of the article?
The problem statement that the authors, Couse and Chen sought to address was whether stylus-interfaced technology incorporated in the tablets can be used to implement curriculum for young children mainly in their preschool years. In addition, the study sought to find out how stylus interfaced technology can be align with curriculum for young children. The study enumerated two main reasons why it is important to introduce technology to children early in their school life. One of these reasons was that computers made drawing and leaning easy in addition to creating interest in class work. Therefore, through the study the researchers sought to establish whether these are good grounds to introduce tablets to children in preschool.

2) What is the significance of the research?
This era of computer and technology explosion, a study of this nature is very critical. A move to introduce tablet computers to young children would help reduce the digital divide (Boehret, 2011). However, implementing such a project will need careful planning and implementation strategy to access its viability. The study shows that children will become more motivated if learning is done using tablets unlike the conventional means. In additional, the study proves that it is possible to introduce technology to children in their preschool and thus bring up a generation of tech-savvy generation.3) What do you think about the adequacy of the research methods? Please explain.

The study use both qualitative and quantitative methods normally known as mixed methods. Using mixed method in a study of these nature helps in increasing both external and internal validity of the results. In this case, the researchers used qualitative method to gain deeper understanding of the questions under study. For instance, a researcher can gain more understanding of child’s experience with a tablet by asking the child to explain instead of merely observing. In this study, 41 children with a mean age of 4.9 were included. The children were drawn from same social-economic status but from different races to further increase validity. From the results obtained, the methods used in the study were adequate. Using mixed methods improves the validity of the results since it combines the advantages of both methods. However, the study could have been greatly affected by children’s prior exposure to computer. Therefore, the researcher should have controlled this factor, which has a significant impact on the results.

4) Is the research outcome convincing? Please explain.
The research outcome was convincing mainly because it is in line with what is expected. For instance, the study was able to show that ease of use of tablets is determined by age. The results are also well presented and are obtained through scientific and credible methods. Mixed methods of data analysis and use of parametric methods of data analysis, for instance ANOVA, makes the outcome more convincing. The study was able to prove that implementing the curriculum for preschool using tablet computers is a viable idea.

References
Couse, L. J., and Chen, D. W. A tablet computer for young children? Exploring its viability for early childhood education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43.1(2010):75.
Boehret, Katherine. “The Digital Solution: A Tablet Children can Grow into.” Wall Street Journal Sep 14 2011. ProQuest. Web. 10 Sep. 2013.

Surname 1

Communication Development in Early Childhood

Introduction

Communication encompasses connecting with others by exchange of ideas and feeling, both verbally and non-verbally. It is the ability to give, receive and make sense of information through language and speech. Language is the communication system that is comprised of sounds and letters, or sign languages. Speech on the other hand, may be referred as the ability to express language through sound or gestures.
How do Humans Communicate? Do Other Animal Species Communicate?
Human species communicate in many differed ways in transferring information, mostly vital and meaningful information exchanged between parties through conversation, discussions and dialogues, talk or general communication around. We can use speech, gestures with our hands, facial changes and through the written word. In most cases, human communication is focused on the use of oral sounds with complex symbolic systems to combine different sounds and assign a specific meaning arbitrarily. However, communication in animal species is far more focused on the use of body language. They communicate through smells, visual messages, gestures and sounds, which involve hoots, whistles, barks, howls, slaps on the ground and excreta, to notify others of their psychological state, present concerns and what they are about to do next. For instance, dogs and cats tend to mark their territories with urine. Here the scent is sent out and to be recognized as personal signature, claiming their territory and warning other who may intrude.

How Parents and Others Talk to The Little One, and How Other Modalities Through Which Little Ones Learn about Language.
The way parents communicate with their little one has a huge impact on their learning and ability to listen. Communication constantly model toddlers on how to act and behave. Therefore, how children spoken to shows them how parents want them to speak back. In most cases parents learn to avoid using negative languages such as “no” and “don’t” and using a child’s name trying to get their attention. Again, connecting with a child through eye contact is equally important. This encourages listening between them and the child. Other than simply talking to the little one as a mean of improving his or her communication skills, modalities such as reading books, playing word games, singing, radio and watching television will increase their vocabulary and provide increased opportunities to develop their listening skills. By 24 months of age, toddlers can put two words together developing some grammar skills, and beginning to use words such as “Mine” and “No” to claim their spaces and take control of their world.

Language Development in Infant Stage

Language development is one of the very exciting part in a child’s development. Their understanding and use of words begin to build rapidly and can say one or two recognizable words. Children will begin to recognize their names by around 5 months, which even a toddler may pay more attention if you mention them in a conversation, (Newman and Newman, 2012). They begin reading social cues as early as 8 months old and will understand when grownups get angry, when voices get louder, breathing get more rapid, and even when movements get jerkier. At this age, they pay attention to conversation and may take turn in that conversation usually through vocalizations such as “cooing” sounds. They can clearly understand a conversation long even before the adults believe they can. That is, no matter what you say, there is a possibility that your child gets the underlying message. Studies show that children enter a language exploration age at about 2 years old. Here they start learning about nine new words a day and begin to understand the patterns of language and how word order affects meaning. At this age, they can clearly figure out whatever one is talking about. However, others still seem to have difficulties in patterns of languages. They do not start speaking until they are about 18 months old. My nephew begun to utter few single words like “mama”, “dada” and “up” at about 17 months. He had only mastered few nouns, verbs and adjectives. Nearly about 7 months later he could string together words, in few syllable sentences. He could express his feeling in verbal statements like “Want milk mummy”, and sometimes could put together some statements that could only be understood by those who have spent time with him, not outsiders. However, in few months later he could speak few words with complex statements as “When we get home, can I watch TV?”. This was so amazingly rapid thought at relatively late age unlike other children who master speech acquisition about 12 months.

Generally, long before any infant says his or her first words, he or she seems to acquire communication skills that form the basis of language. Being a late talker is no cause for alarm since a sizable minority, about ten percent tend to lag behind.
Major Language Development Milestones Associated with Toddlerhood
Language development milestones refer to the attainment of different language skills and abilities in toddlerhood. Different speech and language milestones are attained on a month by month basis. Through this development, a child learns to communicate his or her inner thoughts, ideas and emotions. Stages in language development are universal among humans (Otto, 2002). However, the pace and age in which a child reaches a certain milestone may vary from a child to another. Girls seem to develop language at a rapid rate than boys. One comes to understand and communicate language in the following process.
5 months
Infants develop language at a very faster pace. They can respond to changes in a tone of voice or make louder sounds. They also have capability to vocalize excitements and pleasure, spatter loudly, and tend to shape their mouths to change sounds. In short, they often communicate their desires with gestures and babbles.
12 months
A toddler has the capability of single words accompanied by gestures or a tone. He or she is able to use non-verbal gestures and have not yet mastered basic language functions. The range of sounds he or she produces is narrowed and begin to babble taking on sound characteristics of the language that surrounds them. The babbling here consists of reduplicated syllable such as “mamama” or “dadada”, “nana” or “papa”. These articulations are somewhat questionable at first. However, before long they start using the sounds to draw someone’s’ attention, or to demand an object, and may persist until he or she gets it.
18 months

A good percentage have the capability of putting out eight to ten words and have mastered about 200 word vocabularies. They can chatter and imitate others, and use echolalia and can understand simple words such as “on” , “hot”, “down”, “stop” and such. However, only about twenty percent of their speech can be understood by non-family members.
18-24 months
They usually achieve the effect of complex statements by stringing some simple words together and begin to produce their first spontaneous two- or so words. They start to use more words that are not nouns and use simple words to describe objects, like big and, or small.
24 months
At this stage, a child’s language development gains rapid momentum. They come to understand that there exists a word just for everything. Most words here are universal, usually names of foods, toys, vehicle, animals, clothing and members of family. The biggest percentage seem to learn most general nouns, however, they may over-generalize some words, for example calling all pets “cats”. They can follow a two-step instruction and can also put out intelligible words. According to Otto (2002), children at this age usually have averagely twenty to fifty intelligible words.
36 months
Most parents can understand approximately eighty to ninety percent of their child’s speech since their speech skills continues to improve (Otto, 2002). Sometimes they may leave off the end of words and mispronounce some. They seem to be able to participate in give and take conversations with a person, and are able to formulate simple questions.
How do Toddlers Communicate?
Babies will either cry in different ways for different things, or coo and gurgle with pleasure. Soon they begin to realize that their caregiver will respond when they make certain noises. They start to trust this as mean of communication when a parent responds since his or her needs are met. They then tend to carry this through their toddlerhood and now begin to use action and words that express what they see or want. They sometimes come out with short sentences such as “mummy I want” to assert themselves. Toddlers use words such as “Mine” and “No” to claim their spaces and take control of their world, (Otto, 2002). Toddlers may communicate through gestures and tone of voices as well.Newman and Newman (2012), whatever kids do physically might be as equally important as what they actually say.
A toddler talks and expresses him or herself, and answers when asked a question, though sometimes he/she does not do exactly what you ask him to do, which brings the question of whether he is understanding or not. At this stage a child goes through a huge development and their infant babbles are now turning into real world, from single words to stringing multiple words together (Newman and Newman, 2012). However, they often become frustrated at times since they understand much more than they can say. Slowing down is one of many ways a parent can help a young one understand what he or she is being told. Bath time, meal times are some of the best times to slow down your speech and talk to your child. Further, adults often take time to wait for their little one to respond to them. Newman and Newman (2012) argue, “When you ask him a question, wait. When you want him to do something, wait” (p.202)
Often little one mimics sounds whenever parents talk, or while watching cartoon on TV or video games. Imitation is important to the development of abilities, from language to social skills. This can guide the child to combine words into short phrases and eventually sentences that can be understand.

References

Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2012). Development through Life: A
Psychosocial Approach, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Otto, B. (2002). Language Development in Early Childhood, Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Talay-Ongan, A., & Ap, E. A. (2005). Child Development and Teaching Young Children,
Southbank, Vic: Thomson Social Science.

COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT | 7

Running head: COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT 1

Introduction
The period of a child’s development i.e. physically, socially, mentally and emotionally is very essential and unique. By the age of two, a person’s brain is able to obtain 85% of its total growth and 90% growth at the age of three. In this period, a child achieves motor skills, development of language and emotional attachment and regulation. In this regard, a child achieves such skills through positive interactions with adults, exploration of objects like books, listening to stories, singing pre-school songs, recognizing words like ‘mama’, ‘papa’, among others (Oregon.gov, n.d.).

Parents can make children better readers and perform exemplary well in school through reading story books at an early age. Also singing songs enable children acquire literacy skills. According to Oregon (n.d.), children who experience books at an early age, easily learn how to read once they join pre-school, and those who are highly supported by parent become successful in future. Children who are emotionally supported by parents perform well in school as they are able to confide to them in case of any difficulties in the learning process.

According to Close (2001), parents should encourage their children to talk and listen so as to enhance their communication skills. In addition, they should encourage their children to write depending on their age. Also, they should recognize and acknowledge success of their children so as to boost their confidence. Moreover, parents require support from the government, media and the entire community in relation to school and intervention to parents who are incapable of providing literacy skills to their children.

‘Incredible years’ is a form of literacy training intervention that constitutes a series of programs meant to strengthen parental competencies like positive discipline, monitoring and confidence. It also encourages parents to be involved in a child’s educational experiences, so as to advance his or her social, academic and emotional competencies. In this regard, parents are grouped in relation to the ages of children. According to Allen (2011), the ‘Incredible year’ intervention has mostly been utilized in United Kingdom, so as to focus mostly on the disadvantaged families.

‘Let’s Begin with the Letter People’ is a kind of program meant to improve early literacy and language skills. This program targets most areas of language development such as development of vocabulary, phonological awareness, motivation to read, reception and expression of language development, among others. More so, this program emphasizes more on phonological awareness and knowledge of letters (Allen, 2011).

Sure Start Program is an educational intervention that targets children between ages 0-3 years, before they enroll in school. This program supports the disadvantaged families, and it aims to improve emotional and health development in young children and parents. Other centers such as Early Excellence and Children’s Centers have been set up together with Sure Start so as to offer support and advice in response to education and health issues (Dillon and Maguire, 2007).
Accountability and assessment are essential aspects in any educational program. Early childhood teachers should always monitor the progress of children and be able to find out those in need of intervention in order to improve their early literacy skills. Assessment in this case is important as pre- school teachers are able to come up with reliable and factual measurements of
such skills.

According to National Center for Family Literacy (2009), instructions that are mainly focused on childhood literacy skills may offer essential and valuable preparation, especially in children who are at the risk of developing difficulties in reading. It is essential for teachers to assess the attainment of children’s skills, so as to come up with instruction necessary for each child, and be able to change the instruction depending on the extent of attainability so as to benefit most children.

Both informal and formal assessments are essential in evaluation of children’s literacy ability. In relation to informal assessment, most teachers observe and reflect on participation in aspects such as play, so as to evaluate whether an individual child is making progress or not. Informal assessment is essential as it enables one to identify areas of strength, abilities that need improvement, and areas in which children are not willing to progress to the next level or skill. Informal assessments are effective because observations are based on perceptions of teachers who keenly look at the behaviors of children in a given situation over time. In formal assessment, a systematic approach is utilized, whereby children’s abilities are screened, their progress monitored, and the results are written down. Formal assessment is effective because teachers are able to come up with valid and reliable measurement of children’s abilities.

Code- focused instruction is essential in improving children’s skills, since it is based on the principle of alphabets. In this case, letters found in written words signifies sounds in any spoken word. Code- focused skills predict the outcomes of interpretation, spelling and reading of comprehension. Moreover, it involves one’s ability to know and control sounds in any spoken word, and be aware that letters found in the alphabets once they are combined represent the sounds produced. Since code- focused skills are critical in helping children learn how to spell and read carefully, pre-school teachers should utilize related instructional strategies so as to improve children’s skill development. In this case, they should teach alphabetical knowledge and phonological awareness that incorporates early decoding and phonics. In addition, code- focused instructions should be used to develop suitable early childhood classroom, which incorporates direct instruction and discovery learning. More so, it should be systematic, clear and practical.

So as to advance the education system among the pre-school children, the president of America; Barrack Obama has proposed policies meant to expand the access of pre- school and facilities that are affordable for child care, so as to improve the lives of families struggling to take care of their loved ones. In this regard, they have increased federal subsidy. This is because the federal subsidy in response to child care is approximately 5600 dollars per year. This amount is low as compared to the one required for child care. This gap makes it difficult for poor families to educate their children (Brown, Cooper, Herman et-al, 2013).

Most educational professionals advocate for introduction of an initiative known as ‘Book start.’ This initiative is essential in the promotion of books for infants, and encourages parents to establish a strong relationship between their infants and books. According to Dr. Close (2001), children who engaged in Book start initiative learned most aspects in schools faster than children who were not involved in such initiatives. However, this initiative is applicable for children below the age of two years.

Inspection framework is another essential strategy can be utilized in improving literacy skills among children. In this case, inspectors should find out whether children have the necessary writing and reading skills in a given curriculum, and how the stipulated curriculum is able to enhance literacy skills among children. After every inspection, one should give a report on the children’s literacy skills and state where improvement is needed.

Also, the involved school should provide a self- evaluation report that offers additional information on children’s literacy skills. After the attainment of the complete literacy report, the inspectors should come up with the necessary intervention programs and always follow up so as know the progress of pupils in relation to literacy. More so, inspectors should observe teaching and learning aspects in a given curriculum, in order to find out if language is well utilized for the improvement of students’ writing and reading abilities. Also, inspectors should find out whether students have the opportunity to utilize a number of strategies so as to enable them punctuate and spell accurately (Investors in People, 2011)

Conclusion
Parents should highly invest on their children’s education so as to strengthen human capital within a given nation. This in addition is essential because the first 5 years of a child’s emotional and development acts as the basis of learning. Also, the government should establish programs meant to mobilize parents to enhance their children‘s literacy and be informed on the long- term effects of early education.
.

References
Allen, G (2011). Early Intervention: The Next Steps; an Independent Report to Her Majesty’s Government. London, UK: The Stationery Office
Brown ,C. G; Cooper, D; Herman, J. Lazarin, M; Linden, M; Post, S and Tanden, N (2013). Investing in our Children: Plan to Expand Access to Pre- School and Child Care. Retrieved on 10 April, 2013 from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/report/2013/02/07/52071/investing-in-our-children/
Dillon, J and Maguire, M (2007). Becoming a Teacher: Issues in Secondary Teaching. Maidenhead: Open University Press
Dr. Close, R. (2001). Parents Involvement and Literacy Achievement. National Literacy Trust. Retrieved on 10 April, 2013 from http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/assets/0000/0423/Parental_involvement_2001.pdf
Investors in people (2011). A Strategy and Guidance for inspecting Literacy for Pupils Aged 3 to 18 Years. Estyn: Cardiff
National Center for Family Literacy (2009). An Introductory Teacher Guide for Early Language and Emergent Literacy Instruction. Retrieved on 10 April, 2013 from http://www.famlit.org/pdf/what-works.pdf
Oregon. gov (n.d.). Early Literacy Initiative. – Why Early Literacy? Retrieved on 10 April, 2013 from
http://www.oregon.gov/osl/ld/pages/youthsvcs/earlylit/why.aspx

2
LITERACY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Running Header: LITERACY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES 1

Best Strategies for Helping Children Learn to Identify and Express Their Emotions

Early childhood is an important stage in the development process of human beings .It is the period, up until eight years, in which the physical, social, cognitive, and emotional aspects of an individual take form and expound as he/she grows. The socio-cultural background, past experience and environment of a child determines his/her path of development during childhood (Neaum, 2010). Therefore, it is essential for children to be nurtured in a supportive and conducive environment to facilitate wholesome and developed learning experience.
In Manuel and Damien’s situation, the former comes across as egocentric. By taking Damien’s shovel without even asking his permission, shoes that he is self-centered and determined to get what he desires or having his own way. He portrays insensitivity towards other people’s feelings as he continues playing with the shovel despite having noticed that Damien is disappointed and is crying. Under such a circumstance, according to the textbook, Building a Foundation, intentional teachers are able to listen and learn, therefore in this same situation, children require attention and understanding of each personality (Bredekamp, 2011). As a teacher, I would summon both children, after listening to both sides of the story to display impartiality; I would tell Manuel to apologize return the shovel to Damien and find him another toy to play with.

Latoya appears to be reserved and inhibited. Her introverted personality prevents her from joining the rest of the children in wall rock climbing although she really wants to. In reference to Building a Foundation, effective teachers are accommodative of children and encourage their involvement in challenging situations (Bredekamp, 2011). Educators are consequently able to help children tap into their potential by overcoming their fears and reservations. They are curious and creative hence a teacher would apply this by noticing Latoya’s shyness and in turn be creative in convincing her to play with the others. As a teacher, I would use a warm and inviting tone as I convince Latoya of how much fun she would have if she joined the rest of the children in wall rock climbing. I would attempt to convince Latoya to engage in the activity by making convincing comments. I would arouse her curiosity and interest in participating in the wall rock climbing by using imagery to describe how enjoyable it would be. I would also support her by offering to walk with her to the wall rock and help her to climb.
Tommy is considerate, as he does not want to hurt any of his friends’ feelings. He realizes that Mohammad would be disappointed if he chooses to go with Chuck to the movies and forgo his invitation to spend the night. Mohammad might also be offended because he was not invited to go and watch the movies alongside Tommy. He also does not want turn down his invitation to the movies although both offers seem attractive. In Building a Foundation, good teachers ought to be focused, flexible, informed and effective to help a child in decision making while concurrently helping him/her to learn in the process (Bredekamp, 2011). Tommy should be advised to come to a consensus with the friends so as not to upset any of them. He could invite one friend over so that they enjoy the both activities together. As a teacher, I would advise Tommy to attend the invitation that was made known to him first. He should then explain to Mohammad and reschedule the activity for another day. In sum, parents, caregivers, and educators should collaborate in ensuring the smooth learning process of children
References
Bredekamp, S. (2011). Effective Practices in Early childhood education: Building a Foundation.
London: Pearson.
Neaum, S. (2010). Child Development for Early Childhood Studies. Southernhay East: Learning
Matters Ltd.

EARLY CHILDHOOD 2

Running Head: EARLY CHILDHOOD 1

School Age

Introduction
Childhood is a major phase in the life of a human beings because it influences one’s future life. Focal development is a process, which is depicted in various stages (Berk, 2006). These stages have a major role, which ensures the well-being of an individual. Cognitive development will be the major focus during this observation. School age children are continually in progress, realizing their world with inquisitiveness, enthusiasm, and a continuous source of power. The aptitude of a child to learn new things in this period is vast.

Children grow and learn from every relationship, escapade, and experiences they encounter. Having the chance and room to play environment and determine stuff helps children in school age to develop their intellect. The rate of growth and development in children varies from one child to the other (Berk, 2006; Charlesworth, 2010). This is because there are various factors, which influence different aspects of child development and growth.

Erickson structured life in different stages right from birth to death. Based on Erickson theory, life is a series of accomplishment or growth stages. During school age, a child start matching and sorting more than one attribute at a time. In this stage, children begin to be goal oriented and determined to use a plan.
The unique aspects, which are brought out by each child, play a crucial role when observing or analyzing how children grow (Curtis & O’Hagan, 2003). When one is working towards providing the best available conditions for child growth and development, it is important to understand the various stages of child growth so that one can be able to provide the best environment.

A child is born as whole persons and the development of all aspects take place simultaneously as they mature to adulthood (Essa, 2009; Tassoni, 2004). The major aspects, are the physical aspect, intellectual aspect, social aspect and the emotional aspect. In order to evaluate the development of a child, one needs to understand and observe the various aspects under study.

There are different theories of development that focus on the cognitive development of a child. However, these theories have been founded based on a very influential theory, which was developed by Jean Piaget (Kohnstamm, 2011). Piaget’s theory, which is known as the cognitive developmental theory will form the focal ground for understanding child growth and development. Child’s ability to develop cognitively by learning how to form concepts by building on what is known towards the unknown is one of the key aspects observed. Piaget’s theory has provided a framework, which explains how children think and develop concepts throughout their childhood (Kohnstamm, 2011). Piaget’s extensive research has shown how children develop and it has enabled this theory to be applied in educational settings.

The premise of cognitive developmental theory is founded on the fact that a child is active participant in the learning process. Meaning that a child’s minds should be challenged to think and form concepts based on what they observe and understand. This perception was taken into account during the observation procees. This theory explains that child growth and development takes place in four main stages which include sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stage respectively (Sharman, Cross, & Vennis, 2004 ). Each of these stages has a relevant role to play when it comes to observing children. School age children according to Jean Piaget’s theory are normally found between the age of two and seven years, that is, the preoperational stage.

Narrative: Behaviors, Activities, and Interactions
In this observation, child x was observed in two different locations in a span of 15 hours. Chris is a 6-year-old boy who spends his day in a childcare center. The observation took place in the Child Care Center and the playground. Observation sessions were two fold, that is, two hours every day in the childcare center. These hours were split into two, that one hour in the mid-morning session, and an hour in the afternoon for five days. This totaled to ten observation hours. Secondly, Chris was observed for five additional hours in the play field. This amounted to 15 observation hours that took place in five days. The observations made have been split into two, that is, midmorning session and the afternoon sessions.

Observations during the class sessions
This took place just before the lunch hour. During these hours Chris was exposed to social activities that promoted language and social development. Chris had a positive curiosity to learn, that is, he exhibited a high interest in learning. He was keen to find out how things operate as he took time asking the teacher a series of questions every day. Chris was very social to his teacher as well as his fellow pupils. Chris always consult his teacher for help. Though he was somehow shy, he had two friends who sat next to each other in class, and also palyed together.

Chris also exhibited instances of egocentric thinking as he socialized with other children. This was evident when he indulged in activities that seemed to be appealing to him. Upon intervention by the teacher, Chris was able to allow other children to take part in his activities. Chris teacher’s comments on his social skills gave a reflection of child X’s progress which had made him more accommodating to other people’s views.

Chris could compose five word sentences with much ease. He could reason about various issues, for example, he could ask what was making his colleagues cry in class and reason with the teacher some of the remedies that could be used. In addition, he could use words like why when seeking explanation about various concepts in the class. Chris was always categorizing various objects without any challenges; a case in point was when he was asked to identify various shapes of the toys he was playing with in the class session. He was also able to sit down and concentrate, listen to the teacher’s direction and carryout simple tasks as described by the teacher.

Observations in the playground
The observation in the playground took a total of five hours. Chris was taking part in activities which were involving two or three children. At some point, he could disagree with the other children but eventually he managed to get along. This indicated that he was becoming emotionally attuned to what others were saying. During the play activities, Chris focuses on one activity and at times ignore what was going on around him. Furthermore, he could ask questions, which are animistic in nature, for example, why do the stars twinkle and whether the trees felt pain. However, there are instances where he could start focusing on things that are more abstract.

Chris also loves outdoor activities, most of the instances he spent time on his own. He preferred taking part in his own initiatives and ignoring most of the advances from his colleagues. Most of the time, Chris uses symbols in conveying meaning. For example, he played using toys. Role-play was also evident during the observation as Chris begin to act various roles while playing with his friends such as the role of a mother, a father, and a doctor. He also used various objects to describe who he was and what he was doing. For example, Chris sometimes used objects to signify or symbolize real life things such as blocks are used to represent cars. It was also observed that Chris was not able to conserve information in greater depth; he had challenges in estimating aspects such as weight and volume.

Assessment
Chris presents a classic presentation of child development according to Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Chris also exhibited instances of egocentric thinking as he socialized with other children. This was evident when he indulged in activities that seemed to be appealing to him. According to Piaget, this aspect tends to diminish with age, as the child is able to learn negotiation skills as well as the ability to place himself in the shoes of the other person (Kesselring & Müller, 2011). One of the major aspects, which stand out, is the fact that he has gradually developed into a person who is able to reason and learns in class. Furthermore, his levels of geocentricism have been on a reduction trend (Benson & Haith, 2010). This implies that he has developed the capacity to view at live from other people’s perspectives. This is a major step in growth because as a person because eventually he will be able to interact with other children and members of the society.

The basis of cognitive developmental theory is founded on the fact that a child is active participant in the learning process. Chris had a positive curiosity to learn, that is, he exhibited a high interest in learning. He was keen to find out how things operate as he took time asking the teacher a series of questions every day. Play behavior outlines the structure for learning regarding belief, compromise, and cooperation. Through these skills, a child has an opportunity to form and maintain friendships (Jordan, 2003).

Chris had an enhanced capacity to articulate concepts in class session. This was evidenced by the fact that he could compose five word sentences with much ease. In addition, he could count up to 10 items with much ease (Benson & Haith, 2010). He had an enhanced sense of time, for example, he could easily identify the time of day and days within the week (Houdé, Lamberton, Vigneau, & Pineau, 2011).

Role-play was also evident during the observation as Chris begin to act various roles while playing with his friends such as the role of a mother, a father, and a doctor. He also used various objects to describe who he was and what he was doing. For example, Chris sometimes used objects to signify or symbolize real life things such as blocks are used to represent cars. It was also observed that Chris was not able to conserve information in greater depth; he had challenges in estimating aspects such as weight and volume.

One of the main challenges, which are facing Chris, is the fact that he does not have company at home. He spends most of the time alone when in the house, thus denied an opportunity to exercise what he has learned. It is important for the parent to work in conjunction with the caregivers and teachers at school in order to enhance what he is learning and achieving. Lack of emotional maturity in some cases when playing is one of the factors, which have been, exhibited as a consequence (Charlesworth, 2010).

Chris prefers working in areas enclosed with supervision. This was observed by clear disparities of his behavior in class and at the same time in the field. Essentially, Chris on the field was practically opposite of the Chris in class. This was characterized by the fact that he sought much approval from the teacher for the activity, which he was doing at almost every point in time. This led to a conclusion that he has not been given adequate time to socialize with other children. He feels more comfortable when he is taking part in activities that have a supervisor. This is approach should be discouraged because it denied him an opportunity to socially and cognitively interacts with his peers.

In addition, during play, Chris should be given more time to participate in-group activities. This is important because it will enhance his vocabulary and enable him to communicate more clearly. As he goes through the changes and struggles to become less egocentric and more accommodating Chris should also be allowed to express him at home. This will set the stage for development at the concrete operational stage as outlined by Piaget (Nisha, 2006). Interacting within and without class independently will enhance both logical and inductive reasoning.

Learning Activities
Chris has been introduced to social settings where he has been allowed to play with other children in the parks. Although he does not like playing in open areas, he enjoys playing is closed areas. However, Chris is much interested in class work than playing.

Conclusion
Cognitive development theory is instrumental when establishing the cognitive aspect of growth and development in children. In this case, it has been observed how Chris has been typically developing through the preoperational stage as he prepares for the concrete operational stage. Essentially, the application of this theory has also been instrumental in pointing out some of the challenges that are facing Chris. For instance, lack of support from home has been a keen indicator of what should be done in order to ensure that he grows up following the right sequence. According to Piaget’s cognitive theory, children are self-centered but these changes as they feel their growing world. During school age, children learn through observation, practice in play, trial and error, imitation, and trial and error. As it was observed during the observation process, Chris learnt a lot through observation, practice in play, and imitation.

The cognitive component in development of play behavior was observed when Chris was playing by himself while observing the play behavior of others. Chris had an opportunity to form and maintain friendships through these skills. It is also during this period where Chris experienced a desire to emulate the adults around him and start to make play situations.

References
Benson, J. B., & Haith, M. M. (2010). Language, Memory, and Cognition in Infancy and Early Childhood. Salt Lake City: Academic Press.
Berk, L. E. (2006). Child Development. Boston,MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Charlesworth, R. (2010). Understanding Child Development. California: Cengage Learning.
Curtis, A., & O’Hagan, M. (2003). Care and Education in Early Childhood:A Student’s Guide to Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge.
Essa, E. L. (2009). Introduction to Early Childhood Education. California: Cengage Learning.
Jordan, R. (2003). Social play and autistic spectrum disorders—A perspective on theory, implications, and educational approaches. Autism, 7(4), p. 347–360.
Houdé, O., Lamberton, F., Vigneau, M., & Pineau, A. (2011). Functional magnetic resonance imaging study of Piaget’s conservation-of-number task in preschool and school-age children: A neo-Piagetian approach. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110(3), 332–346.
Kesselring, T., & Müller, U. (2011). The concept of egocentrism in the context of Piaget’s theory. New Ideas in Psychology, 29(3), 327-345.
Kohnstamm, G. A. (2011). Jean Piaget:Number and Class in Children. New York: Transaction Publishers.
Nisha, M. (2006). Milestones Of Child Development. New Delhi: Gyan Books.
Sharman, C., Cross, W., & Vennis, D. (2004 ). Observing Children:A Practical Guide. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Tassoni, P. (2004). Diploma in Pre-school Practice. London: Heinemann Publishers.

SCHOOL AGE 9

Running Head: SCHOOL AGE 1