Astronomy: Planet Pluto

Pluto as a planet was discovered in 1930 as the ninth planet of the solar system. Since its discovery by Clyde Tombaugh at Lowell Observatory, it was for a long time referred to as a planet until 2006 when the term planet got new definitions. The new definition resulted to exclusion of Pluto away from the planet category. It has since been described and categorized as dwarf planet. This is mainly because it’s small size which comprises of ice and rocks according to Mike and Laurel (2008, p. 1).

The criteria employed to define planets imposed a planet as an object to have the ability to orbit the sun. It was also required that, a planet should be vast enough with a round shape and possess enough pull of gravitational force which is a dominating mass feature among planets. Of these three requirements, Pluto was only able to fulfill two features lacking enough gravitational force as well as round shape. It was not the only planet which was reclassified in the dwarf planet category. Ceres, Haumea, Makemake and Eris were also classified under similar category owing their features that did not meet the essential features. Its four satellites namely; Nix, Hydra, Charon which is the largest and one discovered in 2011 that is yet to be named however are still in existence (Colleen 2).

Colleen states that, Pluto spends two hundred and forty eight years in order to make a single complete orbit around the sun. Colleen further states that, this dwarf planet is very elliptical such that, more than often, it moves closer to the sun in twenty years. These twenty years are in comparison of its two hundred and fifty years it has existed in the solar system. This fact when compared to Neptune’s orbital qualities reveals that, Pluto’s orbit is more oval rather than round-shaped. Pluto spends six earth days in order to make an absolute rotation. The word Pluto depicts a cultural meaning and was given to this dwarf planet as a result of its easy accessibility by astronauts.

Definition of planets was carried out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) which is a body comprising of over ten thousand astronomers from diverse countries. This body is consented in standardizing, defining as well as naming of new conventions and the solar system at large (Mike and Laurel 3). It was therefore, responsible for the naming of Pluto where the first two letters accord credit to the founder of Lowell Observatory known as Percival Lowell. Although suggestions in naming Pluto were internationally, an England girl who was still attending school named Venetia Burney bears sole responsibility and accreditations (Colleen 4).

Pluto’s Physical Characteristics
Pluto is considered to be the largest object when compared with others present in the solar system. It has a mass capacity that is 0.002 percent more than that of the total earth mass with a diameter of approximately 2150 kilometers in length. Charon, one of its satellites and also a moon in Pluto has a diameter of 1250 kilometers while diameters for the other two satellites fall below 100 kilometers. It is mainly covered with methane, nitrogen gas, organic compounds and carbon monoxide (CO). All these compounds and elements are however found in small quantities. Methane is said to be both in diluted and pure ice forms in Pluto. Charon compounds are compromised of water in ice forms which fully cover the satellite. There is also presence of ammonia hydrate compounds in Charon unlike in Pluto according to NASA (2009, p. 1).

In similar manner, among all the other objects in the solar system, Pluto has a minimal number of volatile species. This is attributed to the fact that, its surface is consistently exposed to space weathering. Volatile species that hold carbon transforms into crusts with refractory features in darkness. Haumea satellite also comprises of materials which are fully covered by pure ice water. Planet Pluto therefore, contains materials that are relatively fresh due to different and diverse physical processes such as volatile transportation of objects, sublimation and cry-volcanism among others. Charon due to its brightness is best used in carrying out investigations on Trans Neptunian Objects (TNOs) chemical and physical natures (Frederic 5).

Pluto is different from other major planets based on few features. It has a mass capability less than that of the moon. Pluto’s mass when compared to mass found in Mercury is found to be about 4 percent that of Mercury. This is notwithstanding the fact that, planet Mercury being the smallest planet. Pluto therefore, has no ability to finish its orbit zone because it cannot dominate its gravitational force attributed to its small size and mass capacity. Pluto is much closer to the sun than Neptune thus, crisscrossing their orbits (NASA 1). The other planet’s orbits lacks enough capability of intersecting their neighboring planet’s orbit. Pluto’s orbits are thus controlled by Neptune’s gravitational force which leads to the revelation of Pluto being under the control of Neptune. With regard to its density, planet Mars contains double the density of Pluto due to the light gases, coupled with sublimated ice found in its service (Baratta, et al 2002).

Pluto’s Orbital Characteristics
Pluto spends two hundred and forty eight years orbiting the sun which translates to almost 49.3 astronomical units (AU), where one unit represents the mean distance from the earth to the sun. For several years, Pluto has essentially been considered closer to the sun than Neptune. This explains why in 1989, astronomers were able to study its cold, distant and small compositions which were only 29.7 AU. Whenever Pluto is nearer the sun, its ice compositions thaw and continually rise to form a thin atmosphere layer. As Pluto orbits with its features further away from the sun, its temperatures lower making Pluto climatic conditions colder. This fact is elevated by its elliptical quality and thus the atmospheric temperatures are termed as frozen. It is yet to be established if Pluto contains magnetic fields, though there are suggestions that, it does due to its slow rotational movements and small size (Frederic 18).

Pluto’s Orbit and Rotation
In late 1980s, both Charon and Pluto engagements led the two repeatedly passing in front of each other. These movements and engagements which lasted for years permitted astronomers to draw maps of either. The rudimentary maps showed each of Charon’s and Pluto’s bodies had relatively bright and dull areas. It was revealed that, Pluto rotates from east to west which according to astronomers represents a backward movement (NASA 1).

Pluto’s Moons
The moon found in Pluto according to National Aeronautics and Space Administration is double the size of Pluto. This moon is commonly known as Charon and due to the discovery of its large size; it is classified together with Pluto to form the double dwarf planet system. The two are distanced by close to 12,200 miles and from images taken in 1994; it was revealed that, Charon was more gray or red than Pluto. This was a sign that, Charon compositions, elements and structures found on its surface are different from those of Pluto. There were two additional moons just like Charon established orbiting the same plane in 2005. However, these two moons from photos taken revealed that, they were tinier in size and further away from both Pluto and Charon. Photographs were taken using a Hubble Space Telescope with such an ability to travel long miles and with clear visibility.

These two moons were later named Nix and Hydra which unlike Charon, do rise or set. Charon is always suspended at the same spot and facing Pluto in an unchanging position, a feature scientists referred as tidal locking. It is estimated that, Charon spends 6.4 earth days orbiting Pluto (Protopapa, et al 2008).
Research and Explorations of Pluto as a Dwarf Planet
There are observations that have been conducted in Chile using Very Large Telescopes (VLT). In 2008, a SINFONI and UT2 were fitted with ISAAC via Near Infrared photometry and spectroscopy. Pluto and Charon can be considered as tightly coupled dwarf planets of the solar system. They are however, angularly alienated thus; their spectrums are disconnected and parallel placed (Brown, et al 2006).

From various data collected, it was concluded that, the two bodies have different body masses. However, their mass differentiation vary in small quantities which was a range computed using the SINFONI instrument. These explorations and discoveries confirmed that, Pluto contains methane ice. However, it was revealed that, various forms of methane ice were both diluted and pure (Cruikshank et al, 2005). Diluted methane ice comprised of nitrogen, while pure methane ice was carbon monoxide. There were other components found on its surface such as; ethane and ethylene which were not extractable due to low temperatures experienced during the research (DeMeo, et al, 2010). Whenever temperatures were very low, ethane components were at their amorphous states and changed to crystals when temperatures rose hence challenges in extracting (Alvarez, et al 2008).

Work Cited
Alvarez, Candal et al, Surface composition and temperature of the TNOs, Orcus, Icarus, 2008.
Baratta, Leto et al, A comparison of ion irradiation and UV photolysis of CH4 and CH3 OH. A & A, 2002.
Brown, Schaller et al, Direct Measurement of the Size of 2003 UB313 from the Hubble Space Telescope . Icarus, 2006.
Colleen, Hartman, Pluto, 2012, Retrieved on 13th June 2013 from: http://www.lowell.edu/documents/unclepercy/Pluto.pdf
Cruikshank, Owen et al, A spectroscopic study of the surfaces of Saturn’s large satellites: H2O ice, tholins, and minor constituents, Icarus, 2005.
DeMeo, Dumas et al A search for ethane on Pluto and Triton, Icarus 2010.
Frederic, Merlin, Pluto and Charon variegated surface: Pluto Charon Ice Spectroscopy, 2010, Retrieved on 13th June 2013 from: http://peer.ccsd.cnrs.fr/docs/00/69/38/23/PDF/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.icarus.2010.07.028.pdf
Mike, Luciuk and Laurel, Kornfeld, Is planet a Pluto?, 2008, Retrieved on 13th June 2013 from: http://www.asterism.org/newsletter/2008-10.pdf
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, (NASA), Pluto and Charon, 2009, Retrieved on 13th June 2013 from: http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/62223main_Pluto.Lithograph.pdf
Protopapa, Boehnhardt et al Surface characterization of Pluto and Charon by L and M band spectra. A&A, 2008.

Surname Here 5

The moon through society (culture vs. science)

Introduction

Throughout history, the moon has played a significant role in society. The moon not only is an important element in religions such as Islam, but also in society to show progress and power. In a social context, the moon has been the source of numerous myth and supernatural stories, still depicted in movies and TV shows today. However, on a more serious note, the moon plays a crucial role in religion such as in Islam, referring to holly days and in science to provide information of extra terrestrial factors and events happening. One main international belief is the one of the moon following people when they are moving. While most people view the moon as a planet part of a solar system, others view it as an important factor for religion and culture.
Research Topic Introduction: Reality about the Beliefs that the Moon Follows People when they are moving
The moon, as has been discussed above, attracts different standings and attitudes, as influenced by culture, science, and myth, with different thoughts on the same subject.

Imagination/ belief vs. reality

The moon is the largest natural satellite, which gets its light from the reflection of light it, gets forms the sun. There is a belief by some people to be the house where gods reside, therefore it has great standpoint in the religious spheres. Still on the religious thoughts, the moon is believed to represent the presence of God and that it is the eyes through which God see people. On the other hand, the scientific view on the same depicts moon as a natural satellite that operate naturally by deriving its light from the sun. Science and astronomy further explains that the moon is has 28 different phases found in its orbits.
A. Role of the moon in religion and culture
Importance of the moon in Islam
The Muslim hold the moon with much respect and it is a religious symbol. In most of their flags, the moon always featured as a religious identity. They take the moon as a thing that God gave powers to reflect on his glory. Through the moon, they (Muslims) believe that they get a direction of when to start their fasting. The moon dictates when this exercise (fasting) begins and it does determine its end. The moon as a religious symbol gives their identity among other religious groups. It is a symbol of purity, an icon of holiness, and a mark of goodness in their religious circles. The moon gives direction of goodness and a hope of the presence of God through which appreciation of the wondrous manifestation of God’s work is seen. By identifying with the moon, they take it that God sees what they do and blesses them by the mere fact that they observe the law under which God operates.

b. Cultural meaning of the moon

Different cultures have different imagination about the moon and its use is of immense value. Different societies used the moon to predict time and to determine seasons. This is still applicable in the contemporary world of some particular communities, which still use the moon to determine seasons, dates and time of the month. The moon marks different festive seasons to different cultures, for example, in the Chinese, moon festive marks a very important event in their culture. The moon festive marked a very important event to family members and the community. During the festive seasons marked by the moon, families blend as they watch the legendry moon. During this time also, people reunite and the society get together in forgiveness and harmony. The moon is also a mark and a symbol of love during the night of clear sky with the dangling moon, lovers spend time together in the aroma of romance he moon is a special mark of a romantic mood.
c. Kid’s ideas about the moon
Kid’s always wonder how present the moon is wherever they go. They have a perception that the moon often moves from place to place and that it is dynamic.
B. Fantastic perception of the moon
a. Magic
Many communities believe that performing some rituals during specific phases of the moon had magical impact in the real life of a human being. Some cultural practices have it that there are some activities that if done when the moon is at some stages, then something magical is bound to befall a person or a community.
b. Astrology
Astrologers believe that the position of the moon has something to do with the habits that people form in life. The reaction to various events, and the way people react to various emotions depends on the position of the moon. Many astrologers have a belief that the moon represents and shows one’s mothering experience.

c. Supernatural believes

There is a belief associated with the supernatural effect of the moon. During the full moon period, ghosts move back and forth and they have the capability of affecting people. Other people also believe that the moon has supernatural power to hide people who have murdered. Therefore, it is very easy to find thieves and the cardinal offenders after full moon or shortly before it occurs.
d. Role of the media (TV shows, movies)
The media has done great work in shaping people perception about the concept of the moon. Scientific facts about the moon have been dispatched to people and falsehood about these natural phenomena is dying out slowly. The media has also helped in advertising movies, which have demystified the myths that have clouded people’s thoughts about the same.
Since the creation of civilization, the moon has played a vital role in determining religious, agricultural, social, and cultural events. The Mayans, have from the start paid a strong attention and understanding to this celestial body, in order to predict the outcome of their community. Through the circles of the moon, they were able to establish an elaborate calendar providing them with exact days in months, and the make accurate predictions of eclipses, today known as the Georgean calendar. In addition, the circles of the moon are also particularly important in the Muslim religions, in order for believers to know the holy days, since moon also serves as a calendar, but a Muslim calendar that refers to the sight of the moon. Moreover, the crescent moon and the star often presents in writings, flags etc. are an international symbol for the Muslims religion.

In contemporary societies, the moon still plays a significant role, besides from religion, it is the core of many myths, and stories counted to kids, supernatural doctrines, and media sellers. In the past years, it seems that the trend has came back to mythical creatures that are witches, vampires and werewolves, depicted in movies, and TV shows, linking every events to the moon and its importance. This dogma has aroused from fiction, which nowadays can be confused for reality by some true believers of these myths. However, the moon can be used in a sort of supernatural way, in order to predict the future or resolve problems, such as in its use in astrology or witchcraft. When it comes to astrology, the moon refers to ones inner soul and persona; many refer to it in order to resolve a tug-of-war, through openness. One might know his/her astrological sign through its date of birth, referring to the location of the moon at that given date and time. Although, many reject ideology of witchcraft, others persist in its use, attaching it to the strong power of the moon. This is emphasized by the idea that the moon through its phases draws power to the earth and provides energy that can be used by people that know how. It is also linked to the idea that the moon has a strong influence in most living organisms in the world, when it is full; shown through the rise of accidents, animals’ irritation, and agitation. All of this is belief, depending on your view of things.
Nevertheless, parents often use the moon to help when it comes to educating their children through the international faith that the moon follows them when they are in motion. Many parents, use this in order to get their kids to sleep of preventing them from lying or doing forbidden actions, by saying that the moon is always watching them and following them wherever they go and at the end of the day, it gives a report to their parents. Once again, this shows how the moon is used by different cultures and societies in order to reach a wished goal, depending if it is in religion, education, or mass indoctrination through the media.

A. Basic information about the moon

a. Etymology

The moon goes by many names. People from different cadre of life and professionals have tried to understand the moon. In the attempt of coming up with clear understanding of the same, they have gone a head relating it to other objects in the universe. Galileo the philosopher when he first directed his view to the moon using the telescope, he saw things which looked like mountains. From there he saw the moon as “the earth on the sky”. This was because its features resembled those of the earth. He further referred to it as the heavens of tranquility and the place of a peaceful mood. Further in his relations of the moon, he (Galileo) referred to it as the sear of utmost tranquility. In this naming of the moon based on men’s curiosity, crater, and other features of the moon were also given names.
b. Creation of the moon
It is believed that after the sun sprung into existence, it took yet another long time for the moon to be formed. There are various theories explain the formation and the creation of the moon. These include the co-formation theory, the giant impact theory, and the capture theory. The giant impact hypothesis; the giant theory stipulate that the moon was foamed from the left over of the solar system. The gaseous orbits from the sun clouded together and through their reflections foamed the sun.
The co-creation theory has it that the moon was formed at the same time other heavenly bodies were foamed. It states that the gravity drew materials of the solar system together and foamed the moon.

Conclusion

The moon as a heavenly body is embodied with boundless illations. Speculations as to its existence, impotence and peculiarity abounds the spheres of history and various contexts of social, cultural, and religious spheres and contexts. There various myths attached to the moon. Religious groups like Muslim hold the moon with high esteem and they regard it as a religious symbol. The moon has been accorded various powers as in the case of magicians. The moon comes by many names; some people like philosophers have attributed many names to it depending on its notable features. It is also mythically believed that the moon follows people wherever they go. The explanation of the existence of the moon has various theoretical explanations that are to demystify the beliefs that have been developed about the moon. Scientific explanation through the media has also contributed indelibly to the reality about the moon.

Bibliography

Callins, Porianne. Truth about the moon: poems. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 2006
Finney, Dee. “Religions and Cultures of Moon Worship.” Religions and Cultures Of Moon Worship. The New York Times, 9 Oct. 2003. Web. 08 Nov. 2013.
Freudenrich, Craig, Ph.D. “How the Moon Works.” HowStuffWorks. N.p., 2008. Web. 08 Nov. 2013.
Griffin, Brian. “SignIn.” Why Does the Moon Follow Me? N.p., 2013. Web. 08 Nov. 2013.
Jennix, Peter. Moon Travellers: a dream that is becoming a reality. London: Oldbourne, 1960
Laux, Dorianne. Facts about the moon: poems. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 2006
Leighton, Peter. Moon Travellers: a dream that is becoming a reality. London: Oldbourne 1960
Parragraph 4 & 5: IDEA 2012- “Reality” about the moon, scientific perspective.
Peanto, F. David. Einstein’s moon: Bell’s theorem and the curious quest for quantum reality. Chicago, Ill: Contemporary Books, 1990
Peat, F. David. Einstein’s moon: Bell’s theorem and the curious quest for quantum reality. Chicago, Ill: Contemporary Books, 1990

 Freudenrich 2008
 Freudenrich 2008
Finney 2013
Laux 2006
Peanto 1990
Jennix 1960
Parragraph & Idea 2002
Callins 2006

 Leighton 1960

8

Why the Moon is Heavily Cratered than the Earth

The moon is believed to have formed after a massive impact blew away the primal matter for the moon ,off the prehistoric molten earth and into course. The moon is a chilly, dry orb with studded craters speckled with huge, hard rocks and grime. The earth on the other hand was formed from a huge revolving Milky Way, which was an accumulation of dust and gas known as the solar nebula. Even though the moon and the earth share certain features, the moon is said to be densely cratered compared to the earth. This is because; the moon lacks the atmosphere that the earth has in order to protect it from attacks from asteroids, meteorites, and comets. According to Burgess (2013), the earth’s atmosphere has consistently protected its surface from bombardments that leads to impact craters on the moon’s surface. The moon has neither wind nor rainfall to cause the attrition of craters that the earth experiences almost daily. The weathering process on the surface of the earth speeds up the wiping out of craters, which is not possible on the moon because the moon has no weather. Seeds & Backman (2012) explicate that, there are comparatively diminutive geologic activities on the surface of the moon that lead to the erosion of the craters than it is on the surface of the earth, which explains the heavily cratered moon than the earth. Additionally, Burgess (2013) reiterates that the surface of the moon is heavily cratered because of the fact that is much older than the earth with evidence from maria and the highlands. That is, there is intense cratering on the moon’s highlands than it is on the maria, which imply that the highlands are the eldest of maria due to fewer craters.

References
Burgess, E. (2013). Outpost on Apollo’s moon. New York: Columbia University Press.
Seeds, M. A., & Backman, D. E. (2012). Horizons: Exploring the universe. New York: Cengage Learning.

WHY THE MOON IS HEAVILY CRATERED THAN THE EARTH 3

Running head:WHY THE MOON IS HEAVILY CRATERED THAN THE EARTH 1

Our Planetary System

The moon is believed to have formed after a massive impact blew away the primal matter for the moon ,off the prehistoric molten earth and into course. The moon is a chilly, dry orb with studded craters speckled with huge, hard rocks and grime. The earth on the other hand was formed from a huge revolving Milky Way, which was an accumulation of dust and gas known as the solar nebula. Even though the moon and the earth share certain features, the moon is said to be densely cratered compared to the earth. This is because; the moon lacks the atmosphere that the earth has in order to protect it from attacks from asteroids, meteorites, and comets. According to Burgess (2013), the earth’s atmosphere has consistently protected its surface from bombardments that leads to impact craters on the moon’s surface. The moon has neither wind nor rainfall to cause the attrition of craters that the earth experiences almost daily. The weathering process that takes place on the earth’s surface speeds up the wiping out of craters, which is not possible on the moon. Seeds & Backman (2012) explicate that, there are comparatively diminutive geologic activities on the moon’s surface leading to the erosion of the craters than it is on the earth’s surface, which explains the heavily cratered moon than the earth. Additionally, Burgess (2013) reiterates that the moon is greatly cratered because of the fact that it is much older than the earth with evidence from maria and the highlands. That is, there is intense cratering on the moon’s highlands than it is on the maria, which imply that the highlands are the eldest of maria due to fewer craters.

References
Burgess, E. (2013). Outpost on Apollo’s moon. New York: Columbia University Press.
Seeds, M. A., & Backman, D. E. (2012). Horizons: Exploring the universe. New York: Cengage Learning.

OUR PLANETARY SYSTEM 3

Running head:OUR PLANETARY SYSTEM 1

Astronomy

Astronomy: Determining the life span of an individual star

Absolutely, the life span of an individual star can be determined by noting its position on the Hertz sprung-Russell (H-R) diagram. The H-R diagram plots a star’s temperature verses its luminosity, which are some of the variables used to determine the life span of an individual star (Chaisson and McMillan, 2006). From the location of an individual star on the H-R diagram, its color, mass, temperature, luminosity,spectral type, chemical composition, evolutionary history, and age can be determined(Riddick, et al, 2007).
On the right lower corner of the H-R diagram are cool, dim, red, and light stars. These stars are believed to have long lifespans, approximately tens of billions of years (Grebel $ Brandner, 2002).On the lower left of the H-R diagram are very small, hot, shiny, and white dwarf stars, which shine for billions of years as they shade off(Chaisson & McMillan, 2006). These stars can have long lifespans since their cooling off takes billions of years. In the center of the H-R diagram are medium-weight, hotter, and brighter stars. An example of such stars is the Sun (Grebel & Brandner, 2002). These stars can live exceptionally long lifespans, perhaps several billion years. On the upper right corner of H-R diagram are very bright, massive, and hot blue stars. These stars can have extremely short lifespans, probably a few million years. Additionally, these stars can also have violent lives. On the upper left of the H-R diagram are giant stars, which are enlarged remains of other dying stars. These stars can be cool. However, they can still be very bright because of their large sizes. These stars also can have extremely short lifespans. They can only live for very short period, possibly a few million years, before they die (Riddick, et al, 2007). From this analysis, it can be deduced that the life span of an individual star can possibly be determined by simply noting its position on the H-R diagram.
References
Chaisson, E. & McMillan, S. (2006). Astronomy: a beginner’s guide to the universe. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Grebel, K. E. &Brandner, W. (2002). Models of Star Formation and the Origin of Field Populations: Proceedings of a Workshop held at Max-Planck Institute of Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany, 9-13 October 2000. United States: Astronomy Society of the Pacific
Riddick, F., F., Roche, F., P. & Lucas, W., P., (2007).‘An Optical Spectroscopic H-R Diagram for low-mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs in Orion,’ Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. vol, 381, pp. 1077-1092

ASTRONOMY 2

Running head: ASTRONOMY 1

Indian spacecraft mission to the Mars

Introduction

In the recent past, there have been attempts by the Indian government in collaboration with its space research organization known as ISRO to send spacecrafts to Mars planet. Although this is a good idea, it comes at the wrong time given the current economic conditions in the country. The Indian government usually has a deficit budget thereby depends on the British government for aids to finance its budget. The majority of the Indian people living in urban areas do not have toilets among other basic facilities. At the same time, about half of the Indian children lack proper food thereby most of them being malnourished (Burke, 2013). With reference to these reasons among others, this research paper opposes the attempt by the Indian government to send spacecraft to the Mars. The research paper argues that the attempt comes at a wrong time hence it should not take place.

Findings
To start with, India does not qualify to send spacecraft to the Mars. This is simply a political strategy that does not benefit the country and the Indian people in any way. According to Pallava Bagla, the attempt by the Indian government to send spacecraft to the Mars is as a result of regional rivalry between India and China (Burke, 2013). In this case, the Indian government is trying to show its superiority in spacecraft to China as it was the case of US to Russia in the twentieth century. This is in relation to the fact that China sent its spacecraft to the moon before India did. For this reason, the Indian government wants to demonstrate to the Chinese government that it is capable of sending spacecraft to the Mars before the Chinese government can do so. On this note, the attempt by the Indian government does not benefit the country in any way, but it only worsens the economic conditions in the country (Dossani, 2008).
Currently, India faces a plunging currency that has been losing its grounds against the major currencies in the world. The attempt to send spacecraft to the Mars implies that the Indian currency is likely to lose its grounds against these major currencies even more. Indeed, the cost of sending spacecraft to the Mars is approximately $ 70 million (Burke, 2013). Given that the Indian government lacks the money to finance its budget, then the government is likely to borrow loans from other nations such as Britain. This will not only increase the loan’s budget for the country, but it will also worsen the condition of the Rupee in the international market. As a result, the condition of the national currency will continue to worsen other than improve if the Indian government sends spacecraft to the Mars. At the same time, the attempt will force the Indian government to look for other sources of income from the Indian economy. While this might seem a panacea to the problem, it will not offer any solution to the problem because the current economic conditions in the country are already worse. For this reason, the Indian government should stop its attempt to send spacecraft to the Mars because it comes at the wrong time.
On the other hand, India is a developing country. This is in contrast with the other countries that have been able to send their spacecrafts to the Mars that India intends to compete with on this ground. A high percent of the Indian children lack proper foods and are malnourished. At the same time, about half of the population living in urban areas lack clean water and other basic commodities such as steady power supply. Given these prevailing conditions in India, the Indian government should re-evaluate its priorities. It should determine which priorities come first and which ones come last. By doing this, the Indian government would be in a position to prioritize the issues that affect the Indian citizens other than those do not help them. At the same time, the Indian government would be in a position to offer quality services to its citizens as opposed to engaging in political battles with China. This would help in improving the current economic conditions in the country (Bhagwati, & Calomiris, 2008).

It would be controversial for the Indian government to spend £45 million on sending spacecraft to the Mars while the same government depends on aids to finance the budget. Currently, India depends on the British government to finance its budget, and the current figure of aid that India receives from the British government is about £300 million. India receives this aid every year thereby an indication of the financial instability in the country (Burke, 2013). For this reason, it would be controversial to spend money on sending spacecraft while the country depends on aids to finance its deficit budget.
It is worth noting that as the Indian government prioritize spending money on sending spacecraft to the Mars, Indian citizens still struggle with high level of poverty. They also struggle with communicable diseases that the government has not been able to control. In addition, the country has been facing new challenges that relate to industrialization and urbanization (FAO, 2006). While this happens, new challenges such as obesity and over nutrition that lead to high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes have been emerging on a daily basis. In this case, the size of the country worsens the health problems in India because the rate at which communicable diseases spread is usually high. For this reason, unless the Indian government addresses the health problems in the country with the urgency they require, it might not be in a position to address them in the future. This means that it is unreasonable for the Indian government to spend money on sending spacecraft to the Mars while it has many challenges that face it. Based on this fact, then the Indian government should not send spacecraft to the Mars. Instead, it should address the challenges that face it (Burke, 2013).

Conclusion

This paper has established that while it is a good idea to send spacecraft to the Mars, the idea does not come at the right time. The paper established that the idea is only a political strategy in the region whereby the Indian government tries to portray its technological achievement of the Chinese government. Based on this reason, the paper argues that this is not the right time for the Indian government to send spacecraft to the Mars because of the following reasons. First, the Indian currency has been losing its grounds in the international market compared to other currencies. For this reason, increasing the national debts of the country would worsen the current condition of the currency. Second, about 40 percent of the children in the country are malnourished while about half of the population living in urban areas lack toilets among other public facilities. Third, it would be controversial to spend money on spacecraft while the country is unable to finance the budget. Fourth, the country faces other challenges that need urgent attention from the government.

References
Bhagwati, J., & Calomiris, C. (2008). Sustaining India’s growth miracle. New York: Columbia Business School.
Burke, J. (2013). ISRO to launch India’s first spacecraft to Mars. Retrieved on January 7, 2014 from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/04/india-mars-probe-launch-space
Dossani, R. (2008). India arriving: How this economic powerhouse is redefining global business. New York: AMACOM / American Management Association.
FAO. (2006). The double burden of malnutrition: Case studies from six developing countries. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations (FAO).

INDIAN SPACECRAFT MISSION TO THE MARS 3

Running head: INDIAN SPACECRAFT MISSION TO THE MARS 1

Astronomy

Methods used to determine the Distance of a Galaxy lying 5Mpc away

Measuring galaxy distances is among the most prominent problems in astronomy (Dekel and Ostriker, 1999). Nevertheless, there are different methods that help to determine effectively the distance of galaxies. For instance, among the methods used to determine the distance of galaxies lying 5Mpc away are Cepheids, Tully-Fisher Relation, and Type la Supernovae. Cepheids are extremely luminous, variable stars that are observable and measurable from a distant position. Cepheid variables such as luminosity and period (distinct variables associated with the behavior of Cepheids) can be used to determine the distance of galaxies lying at distances between 1kpc and 50 Mpc. Thus, the distance of a galaxy lying 5Mpc away can be determined with the help of Cepheid variable stars. When determining the distance of a galaxy lying at such a distance, an astronomer first observes the period of a Cepheid star and then measures its luminosity to determine its apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The astronomer then utilizes this information to calculate the distance of the galaxy by employing the distance modulus equation (Alloin & Gieren, 2003).
Truly-Fisher Relation is a standard candle that uses the width of a galaxy’s spectral lines to measure the distance of turning, spiral galaxies. The candle can calculate the rotational velocity of a far-distance galaxy. The rotational velocity obtained can then be compared to a star’s luminosity to resolve its distance. Type la Supernovae are exceedingly bright, exploding stars found in a binary structure. Because of their brightness, these stars are valuable in establishing the distance of a galaxy lying at a distance of up to 5Mpc. An astronomer just needs to compare the brightness of the explosion of a Type la Supernovae candle and how bright it would have explored, and then use the inverse square law to calculate the distance of a galaxy (Longair, 2008).

References
Alloin, D., & Gieren, W. (2003). Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale. New York City: Springer.
Dekel, A., & Ostriker, P., J. (1999). Formation of Structure in the Universe. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Longair, S., M. (2008). Galaxy Formation. New York City: Springer.

ASTRONOMY 4

Running head: ASTRONOMY 1

Earth Science

Introduction

Earth science is the study of Earth and the neighboring space. Some Scientists studied the impact of human activity on the environment on the earth and the design methods of protecting the planet Earth (Geology.Com para. 1). The Earth Science studies have helped in pursuing basic information about the origin and the evolution of the world (National Research Council (U.S.). 1).

Geology is considered the primary science that deals with all the composition of earth materials, the earth processes and the earth structure (Geology.Com para. 3). Meteorology is the study of atmosphere and how processes present in the atmosphere determine the earth’s weather and climate. The study of meteorology is a decisive concern in the protection of the environment (Geology.Com para. 3).

Oceanography is the study of the earth’s oceans together with its composition, processes, movement and organisms. Any change in the ocean can moderate the climate and oceanographers are developing the ocean as a resource. They are trying to protect it from the human impact by minimizing the effects of human actions (Geology.Com para. 5). Astronomy is the study of universe. The study has enable us understand that moon can drive the ocean tidal system, asteroid impacts have every time shocked the inhabitants of the earth and that the energy of the sun is the one driving the universe (Geology.Com para. 6).

Due to some human activity the climate has changed. The earth scientists have recognized the problem and therefore they are doing everything possible to resolve and therefore the necessity to fully back the importance of earth science (Geology.Com para7). In this paper I assert that cause and effects earth science and the contemporary issues surrounding the earth science needs to be addressed properly.

Cause and Effects of Earth Science

Changes that take place in the ecosystem are normally referred to us events. These events may occur naturally like earthquakes and hurricanes. Some other events that can affect the earth science are human actions like oil spill and the common air pollution. The events can cause changes to occur in the independent parts of the earth normally called the sphere. The interactions during the time of change can cause the part of the earth’s sphere that contains the planet’s solid, liquid and gaseous water to affect the earth science (Kreger para. 3).

Contacts that occur as a result of events like floods and the forest fires usually impacts on local regions. In the case of water it can be dangerous because the water can travel so many miles away from the main steams depleting the ozone. When people understand the interaction they can predict the outcome and plan for it. Forest fires are dangerous cause of earth science because any dry environment can facilitate the fire. The heat from the fire may get rid of the moisture from the air and once this done the vegetation becomes dry and lightening from air may strike the dry vegetation and ignite fire. Some Gaseous pollutants produced during the burning of vegetation also affect the earth science. The heat from the forest fire may be intense enough to cause some of the rocks to break apart and the presence of dead branches can provide the much needed fuel for the fire creating some negative impacts on the earth science (Kreger para. 4).

Contemporary Issues of Earth Science

Since earth science is the study of the planet earth in its present and its history; there are a lot of issues that affect of lives directly. It is quite encouraging to study earth science because it can help us monitor and study volcanoes. The seismic activity can allow the scientists to know more about the processes that are responsible for the natural hazards. Earth scientists have increased their efforts in monitoring the human impact on the environment and also their efforts tomonitor the movement of pollutants (NERC para. 1-2).

Studying fossils helps in satisfying the human curiosity about the origin of human being and the examination of ancient plans that reveal the development of the ecosystem. The fossil s may contain some information regarding the type of environment they were placed thus helping us understand the current climate change trends. The extraction of materials like oil and building stone gravel from the ground have motivated scientists to search for more sources of the economy. For a long period of time earth science have enabled us predict the change of coastline and they have shown some ways of making the carbon system to be neutral (NERC para. 4-5).

Conclusion

The study of earth science is quite interesting because it contains some practical applications. More information about the earth has enabled the scientists to develop energy and mineral resources on the earth. Today we live in a time when earth and its inhabitants are going through a lot of challenges regarding the climate thus the need to embrace the earth science fully. Phenomena such as earthquakes and tidal waves tornadoes and hurricanes are easily addressed when earth science is fully understood.

Works cited

Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). “Earth science issues “Retrieved December 05 2011 from: http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/areas/earth/issues.asp

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Basic Research Opportunities in the Earth Sciences. Basic research opportunities in earth science. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press, 2001

Geology.Com.”What is earth science?”Retrieved December 05 2011 from: http://geology.com/articles/what-is-earth-science.shtml

Kreger, Chris. “Earth System Science” Retrieved December 05 2011 from: http://www.cotf.edu/ete/ESS/ESSmain.html

Extra-solar Planets

Introduction

The question of how many new planets have been discovered has been quite controversial. There are all sorts of arguments and positions, as some posit that only one extra planet has been discovered, others posit that there are 32 new planets, while still others posit there are 92 new planets. However, this paper has inclined to the idea of a number of scientists who have observed and tabled evidence of three new extrasolar planets. According to Penn State (2011) in an article within the Science Daily, three new planets each orbiting around dying star were discovered by a research team that was led by astronomers from Penn State University (para. 1).

Three New Planets

Using Hobby-Eberly Telescope, the astronomers observed the parent stars of the planets known as HD 96127, HD 240237, and BD +48 738 tens of light years away from the earth’s solar system. According to the leader of the team, Alex Wolszczan who is an Astronomy Evan Pugh Professor at Penn State University, one of the huge dying stars has mystery object that orbit around it. The novel research is expected to shed some light over evolutionary rout of the planet system around dying stars. The results of the study are also expected to help astronomers understand the manner in which metallic contents influence behaviors of dying stars.

The three novel extrasolar planet systems are more evolved than the contemporary earth solar system. According to Wolszczan, one of the astronomers in the study, “Each of the three stars is swelling and has already become a red giant — a dying star that soon will gobble up any planet that happens to be orbiting too close to it. While we certainly can expect a similar fate for our own Sun, which eventually will become a red giant and possibly will consume our Earth, we won’t have to worry about it happening for another five-billion years“ (para. 3).

Similar sentiments were shared by Fraser Cain who noted that in 2004, scientists discovered a new class of planets that are beyond the solar system. He observed that the sizes of the new planets are ten to twenty times the earth’s size, but by far smaller than any recently detected planet. H3 observed that the planets compose a novel class of Neptune-sized extrasolar planets. The scientists further posited that one of the novel planets join some three other planets around nearby star fifty-five Cancir forming the first-planet systems. The discoveries were made by a renowned planet-hunting team lead by Drs. Geoffrey Marcy and Paul Buttler of University of California and Washington’s Carnegie institute respectively. The research was funded by NASA and National Science Foundation (Cain para. 2-3).

Marcy observed that “These Neptune-sized planets prove that Jupiter-sized, gas giants aren’t the only planets out there,” “We are beginning to see smaller and smaller planets. Earth-like planets are the next destination” (Cain, para. 5). The discovered planets stick close to their parent stars and also whip around them in very few days. One of the unnamed planets that the scientists discovered circles a star known as Gliese 436 approximately 2.5 days, while the second planet orbit M dwarf, which is a type of a star that is about four-tenth size of the sun.

Sedna:

Source: NASA, Mysterious Sedna, 2004,

Link: http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/16mar_sedna/

According to an article by NASA on the new extrasolar planets, the Mysterious Sedna is among the most recently discovered planets. The planet is 13 billion kilometers away, within the farthest reaches of solar system. Though the exact size of the planet is yet to be determined, NASA has observed that its diameter is between 800 and 1100 mile. Being the farthest planet from the earth, it’s the coldest known region of the solar system, with its temperature never rising above minus 240o Celsius, thus cannot support any form of life. It takes 10,500 years to orbit the sun and it is 130 billion kilometers away from the sun (NASA para. 1-3).

Quaoar

Source: Turnage, Beth. The Astrology of New Planets: Quaoar and the Power of Man. Link: http://astrologyexplored.net/home/?p=2701

In June 2002, a transneptunian body that is one tenth size of the earth was discovered by a group of scientists. The new body which is about half the size of planet Pluto was named Quaoar and added to the list of newly discovered extrasolar planets (Turnage para. 1-2). Quaoar circles the sun after every 288 years, which is longer than the 248 for Pluto. The diameter of the planet is 1250 km, which is about half that of Pluto. The planet is larger than all objects within inner asteroid belt put together and since the discovery of Pluto in 1930, the planet has been the largest discovered object. Quaoar is an ice planet and contains frozen gases such as methane and ammonia, thus cannot support life. It is located 6.3 billion km from the earth (rasnz.org para. 1-5).

Eris:

gps.caltech. The discovery of 2003 UB313 Eris, the 10th planet largest known dwarf planet. 2003.

Link: http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/

This is the largest dwarf planet that has been discovered after Pluto. The planet was discovered by astrologists Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David Rabinowitz, who also suggested the contemporary name of the planet. The planet takes 560 years to orbit the sun and its temperature is below that which can support life, frosty 405 degrees. Even though it is hard to give a precise size of the planet, scientists have deemed that its diameter is about 3000+/- 400 km (gps.caltech, 1).

Work Cited

Cain, Fraser. New class of planets found. 2004. Retrieved on 27 November, 2011 from: http://www.universetoday.com/9850/new-class-of-planets-found/

gps.caltech. The discovery of 2003 UB313 Eris, the 10th planet largest known dwarf planet. 2003. Retrieved on 27 November, 2011 from: http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/

NASA. Mysterious Sedna. 2004. Retrieved on 27 November, 2011 from: http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/16mar_sedna/

Science Daily. Three New Planets and a Mystery Object Discovered Outside Our Solar System. Retrieved on 27 November, 2011 from: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111027132502.htm

Turnage, Beth. The Astrology of New Planets: Quaoar and the Power of Man. Retrieved on 27 November, 2011 from: http://astrologyexplored.net/home/?p=2701

Methods used to Determine the Distance of a Galaxy Lying 5Mpc away

Measuring galaxy distances is among the most major problems in astronomy (Dekel and Ostriker, 1999). Nevertheless, there are different methods that help effectively determine the distance of galaxies. For instance, among the major methods used to determine the distance of galaxies lying 5Mpc away include Cepheids, Tully-Fisher Relation, and Type la Supernovae. Cepheid are extremely luminous variable stars that can be observed and measured from a distant position. Cepheid variables such as luminosity and period (distinct variables associated with the behavior of Cepheids) can be used to determine the distance of galaxies lying at distances between 1kpc and 50 Mpc. Thus, the distance of a galaxy lying 5Mpc away can be determined with the help of Cepheid variable stars. When determining the distance of a galaxy lying at such a distance, an astronomer first observes the period of a Cepheid star and then measures its luminosity to determine its apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The astronomer then uses this information to calculate the distance of the galaxy through employing the distance modulus equation (Alloin & Gieren, 2003).

Trully-Fisher Relation is a standard candle that uses the width of a galaxy’s spectral lines to measure the distance of rotating spiral galaxies. The candle can measure the rotational velocity of a far-distanced galaxy. The rotational velocity obtained can then be compared to a star’s luminosity to determine its distance. Type la Supernovae are very bright, exploding stars that occur in a binary system. Because of their brightness, these stars can be used to determine the distance of a galaxy lying to a distance of up to 5Mpc, an astronomer just need to compare the brightness of the explosion of a Type la Supernovae candle and how bright it would have explored and then use the inverse square law to calculate the distance of a galaxy (Longair, 2008).

References

Alloin, D., & Gieren, W., (2003). Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale. New York City: Springer.

Dekel, A., & Ostriker, P., J., (1999). Formation of Structure in the Universe. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press

Longair, S., M., (2008). Galaxy Formation. New York City: Springer.